dymodel

　　飞机设计变得容易

　　First in a series on basic calculations for designing your own light aircraft.  Heintz describes a simple method for the preliminary design of a light airplane using just paper, pencil and a $10 calculator. 首先，在一系列对基本的计算，设计自己的轻型飞机。 heintz描述了一个简单的方法，为初步设计的轻型飞机，只使用纸张，铅笔和一个10元的计算器。

dymodel

　　木材，铝，钢和复合材料

　　... ... and the Properties of each. 和性能的每一个。

　　By Chris Heintz 由Chris heintz

　　[This article is part 1of a series, where aeronautical engineer Chris Heintz discusses light aircraft design and construction.] [此文章是部分级为一系列，其中的航空工程师克里斯heintz讨论了轻型飞机的设计和建造。 ]

　　Aircraft structures are basically unidirectional. This means that one dimension, the length, is much larger than the others - width or height. 飞机结构基本上是单向的，这意味着一维，长度，是要远远大于其他-宽度或高度。 For example, the span of the wing and tail spars is much longer than their width and depth; the ribs have a much larger chord length than height and/or width; a whole wing has a span that is larger than its chords or thickness; and the fuselage is much longer than it is wide or high. 举例来说，大跨度的机翼和尾部spars是远远超过他们的宽度和深度;肋骨有一个更大的弦长比身高和/或宽度;整个机翼有一个跨度是大于它的和弦或厚度;和机身是远远超过，这是广泛的或高。 Even a propeller has a diameter much larger than its blade width and thickness, etc.... 甚至螺旋桨有一个直径远远大于它的叶片宽度和厚度等... For this simple reason, a designer chooses to use unidirectional material when designing for an efficient strength to weight structure. 这原因很简单，设计师选择使用单向材料时，设计一个有效率的实力，重量结构。

　　Unidirectional materials are basically composed of thin, relatively flexible, long fibers which are very strong in tension (like a thread, a rope, a stranded steel wire cable, etc.) 单向的材料，基本上组成的薄，相对灵活，长纤维，这是非常强烈的紧张局势（如线，一条绳子，滞留钢丝电缆等）

　　

　　An aircraft structure is also very close to a symmetrical structure. That means the up and down loads are almost equal to each other. 一飞机结构也很接近一对称结构，即向上和向下荷载几乎相等，向对方。 The tail loads may be down or up depending on the pilot raising or dipping the nose of the aircraft by pulling or pushing the pitch control; the rudder may be deflected to the right as well as to the left (side loads on the fuselage). 尾部负荷可能会下降或上升，视乎有关试点提高或浸渍的鼻子飞机拉或推音高控制;舵，可偏转，以权以及作为左（侧负荷对机身） 。 The gusts hitting the wing may be positive or negative, giving the up or down loads which the occupant experiences by being pushed down in the seat ... 该阵风击中机翼可能正面或负面的，给予向上或向下载荷，其中乘员的经验被推下来，在座位... or hanging in the belt. 或挂在皮带。

　　Because of these factors, the designer has to use a structural material that can withstand both tension and compression. 由于这些因素，设计师使用的结构材料，能够经受住双方的紧张局势和压缩。 Unidirectional fibers may be excellent in tension, but due to their small cross section, they have very little inertia (we will explain inertia another time) and cannot take much compression. 单向纤维可能是优良的紧张局势，但由于他们的小断面，他们很少有惯性， （我们将解释惯性另一个时间） ，不能采取压缩得多。 They will escape the load by bucking away. 他们将难逃负荷由5.40消失。 As in the illustration, you cannot load a string, or wire, or chain in compression. 作为在该举例来说，你不能负荷的一个字符串，或电汇，或连锁的压缩。

　　In order to make thin fibers strong in compression, they are "glued together" with some kind of an "embedding". 在为了使薄纤维强烈的压缩功能，他们是“粘在一起” ，与一些种“嵌入” 。 In this way we can take advantage of their tension strength and are no longer penalized by their individual compression weakness because, as a whole, they become compression resistant as they help each other to not buckle away. 这样，我们可以利用他们的拉伸强度和不再是惩罚他们的个别压缩的弱点，因为，作为一个整体，他们成为压缩抗，因为他们互相帮助，不扣消失。 The embedding is usually a lighter, softer "resin" holding the fibers together and enabling them to take the required compression loads. 嵌入通常是一个打火机，柔和的“树脂”持有纤维一起，使他们能够采取必要的压缩载荷。 This is a very good structural material. 这是一个很好的结构材料。

　　WOOD 木材

　　Historically, wood has been used as the first unidirectional structural raw material. 从历史上看，木材已被用作第一单向结构的原料。 Nature, in her wisdom, has provided a beautiful unidirectional material by making certain trees grow in certain conditions: They have to be tall and straight and their wood must be strong and light. 自然，在她的智慧，提供了一个美丽的单向物质，使某些树木成长，在一定的条件：他们必须身高和直和其木材必须是强有力和轻。 The cross section of a tree trunk shows the "annual rings" (a ring per year so that we can "count" the tree's age). 横截面的树干表明， “年轮” （一环，每年使我们可以“指望”树的年龄） 。 The dark bands (late wood) contain many fibers, whereas the light bands (early wood) contain much more "resin". 黑暗乐队（晚材）含有许多纤维，而轻带（早期木材）包含更多的“树脂” 。 Thus the wider the dark bands, the stronger and heavier the wood. 因此，更广泛的黑暗带，更强和更重的木材。 If the dark bands are very narrow and the light bands quite wide, the wood is light but not very strong. 如果黑暗带十分狭窄，及轻带相当广泛，木材轻，但不是很强烈。 To get the most efficient strength to weight ratio for wood we need a definite numbers of bands per inch 获得最有效的强度重量比为木材，我们需要一个明确的数目阶每英寸

　　(see ANC No. 18,1951). （见非国大第18,1951 ） 。 In fact, what we want is a good balance of "early" and "late" wood, or in other words, very special growing conditions, ie, the geographic altitude where the tree's growth varies with the latitude and local climatic conditions. 事实上，在我们想要的是一个很好的平衡“早”和“晚”木，或在其他换言之，非常特殊的生长条件，即地理海拔的地方，树的生长随纬度和当地的气候条件。 Although this is a very interesting subject we will not go further into such details except to mention that it is nature who supplies us with a very efficient material from its plant kingdom. 虽然这是一个很有趣的课题，我们不会再进一步到这些细节，除提及，这是谁供应的性质，我们有一个非常有效率的物质从植物王国。 Remember that contrary to the strictly mineral world hopelessly subject to gravity pulling everything down, the plant has a force within itself which makes it grow against gravity, upwards. 请记住，相反，严格矿产世界绝望受重力拉动的一切，这个厂的力量，本身这使得成长，对重力，向上。 If we could use those life forces in our machines we could lift off without the help of an engine... 如果我们能利用这些生命的力量，在我们的机器，我们可以升空没有帮助的引擎... Aviation still has a lot to discover.... 航空仍然有很多发现....

　　Another subject we will not deal with this month is the testing of wood. 另一个问题，我们不会处理这一个月是测试的木材。 There are a few simple tests (humidity, dynamics, resilience) but it seems that nobody knows them anymore. 有几个简单的测试（湿度，动力学，弹性） ，但似乎没有人知道他们了。

　　Some of our aircraft structures are two-dimensional (length and width are large with respect to thickness). 我们的一些飞机结构是两维（长度和宽度都是大方面的厚度） 。 Plywood is often used for such structures. 胶合板是常常被用于这种结构。 Several thin boards (foils) are glued together so that the fibers of the various layers cross over at different angles (usually 90 degrees today years back you could get them at 30 and 45 degrees as well). 几个薄议会（箔）胶结在一起，使纤维的各种层交叉在不同的角度（通常是90度，今天的年回你可以让他们在30日和45度，以及） 。 Plywood makes excellent "shear webs" if the designer knows how to use plywood efficiently. 胶合板，使优秀的“剪网” ，如果设计师知道如何使用胶合板效率。 (We will learn the basis of stress analysis sometime later.) （我们会了解的基础上的应力分析一段时间后） 。

　　To close this discussion on wood, let us plainly state the fact that our present day bureaucratic civilization uses so much paper that we are depleting the planet of trees without replanting them correctly. 关闭此讨论，对木材，让我们的国家显然是事实，即我们现今的官僚文明使用这么多的文件，我们正在耗尽地球上的树木补植，他们没有正确的。 Today good aircraft wood is very hard to come by. 今天良好的飞机，木材是非常难。 Instead of using one good board for our spars, we have to use laminations because large pieces of wood are practically unavailable, and we no longer can trust the wood quality; we have to use many laminations so that the "average" has a reasonable chance to give us the required strength without too much penalty from a weight standpoint. 而不是使用一个很好的董事会为我们spars ，我们必须使用laminations ，因为大块的木材几乎不可用，并且我们不再是可以信任的木材质量;我们必须使用许多laminations ，使“平均”有合理的机会给我们所需的结构强度没有太大的罚款由重量的立场。 From an availability point of view, we simply need a substitute for what nature has supplied us with until now. 从供货的角度来看，我们只需要代替什么性质，提供了我们到现在。

　　ALUMINUM ALLOYS 铝合金

　　So, since wood may not be as available as it was before, we look at another material which is strong, light and easily available at a reasonable price (there's no point in discussing Titanium - it's simply too expensive). Aluminum alloys are certainly one answer. 因此，自木材可能并非如可用，因为这是之前，我们期待在另一种物质是强烈，光照和容易获得在一个合理的价格 （有没有点在讨论钛-它实在太昂贵） 。铝合金当然是一答案。 We will discuss the properties of those alloys which are used in light plane construction in more detail later. 我们将讨论的属性，这些合金是用在轻型飞机的建设，更详细。 For the time being we will look at aluminum as a construction material. 为一段时间内我们将看看铝作为建设材料。

　　Extruded Aluminum Alloys: Due to the manufacturing process for aluminum we get a unidirectional material quite a bit stronger in the lengthwise direction than across. 挤压铝合金：由于制造过程中铝我们得到的单向物质相当多强，在纵向的方向，比全国。 And even better, it is not only strong in tension but also in compression. 甚至更好，这不仅是强大的张力，而且在压缩。 Comparing extrusions to wood, the tension and compression characteristics are practically the same for aluminum alloys so that the linear stress analysis applies. 比较型材，以木材，紧张和压缩的特点是几乎相同的铝合金，使线性应力分析适用。 Wood, on the other hand, has a tensile strength about twice as great as its compression strength; accordingly, special stress analysis methods must be used and a good understanding of wood under stress is essential if stress concentrations are to be avoided! 木材，另一方面，有一个拉伸强度的两倍左右，作为伟大的作为其压缩强度，因此，特别强调分析方法，必须使用和良好的理解，木材在压力下是必不可少的，如果强调的浓度是要避免！

　　Aluminum alloys, in thin sheets (.016 to .125 of an inch) provide an excellent two dimensional material used extensively as shear webs - with or without stiffeners - and also as tension/compression members when suitably formed (bent). 铝合金，在薄页（ 0.016至0.125的1英寸）提供一个极好的二维材料广泛使用作为剪切网-有或没有加劲-也为紧张/压缩委员时，适当的形成（一心）。

　　It is worthwhile to remember that aluminum is an artificial metal. 这是值得记住，铝是一种人工金属。 There is no aluminum ore in nature. 有没有铝矿石的性质。 Aluminum is manufactured by applying electric power to bauxite (aluminum oxide) to obtain the metal, which is then mixed with various strength-giving additives. 铝制品是应用电力铝土矿（氧化铝） ，以获取金属，这是混合，然后与各种力量给予添加剂。 (In a later article, we will see which additives are used, and why and how we can increase aluminum's strength by cold work hardening or by tempering.) All the commonly used aluminum alloys are available from the shelf of dealers. （在后来的文章，我们会看到哪些添加剂的使用，以及为何，以及我们如何可以增加铝的强度冷轧工作硬化，或锻炼。 ）的所有常用的铝合金，可从大陆架的经销商。 When requested with the purchase, you can obtain a "mill test report" that guarantees the chemical and physical properties as tested to accepted specifications. 要求时与购买，您可以取得“轧机测试报告” ，保证化学和物理性质，作为测试，以接受的规格。 (MIL standards, QQA250 XYZ). （百万标准， qqa250的XYZ ） 。

　　As a rule of thumb, aluminum is three times heavier, but also three times stronger than wood. 作为一个经验法则，铝的3倍重，但也的3倍，比木材。 Steel is again three times heavier and stronger than aluminum. 钢，又是3倍，加重和强于铝。

　　STEEL 钢铁

　　The next material to be considered for aircraft structure will thus be steel, which has the same weight-to-strength ratio of wood or aluminum. 在未来的材料加以考虑为飞机结构将因此，钢，具有相同的重量到强度比木材或铝。

　　Apart from mild steel which is used for brackets needing little strength, we are mainly using a chrome-molybdenum alloy called AISI 413ON or 4140. 除了低碳钢是用于括号内需要一点实力，我们主要是使用铬钼合金所谓的艾西413on或4140 。 (AISI .1025 is no longer available.) （艾西0.1025不再可用） 。

　　The common raw materials available are tubes and sheet metal. 共同的原料可用管和金属板材。 Steel, due to its high density, is not used as shear webs like aluminum sheets or plywood. 钢材，由于其高密度，是不会被用来作为剪切网一样，铝表或胶合板。 Where we would need, say a .100" plywood, a .032 inch aluminum sheet would be required, but only a .010 steel sheet would be required, which is just too thin to handle with any hope of a nice finish. That is why a steel fuselage uses tubes also as diagonals to carry the shear in compression or tension and the whole structure is then covered with fabric (light weight) to give it the required aerodynamic shape or desired look. It must be noted that this method involves two techniques: steel work and fabric covering. 如果我们需要，例如0.100 “胶合板， 0.032英寸的铝板将需，但只有0.010钢板将需要，这是刚才太薄，以处理任何的希望，好完成，这是为什么一钢机身使用管也作为对角线进行剪切，在压缩或紧张局势和整个架构是，然后盖织物（重量轻）给它所需的气动外形或理想的期待。必须指出的是，这种方法涉及到两个技巧：钢的工作和织物覆盖。

　　The advantage of 4130N steel structure is that it can readily be welded together. 优势4130n钢结构是，它可以轻易地焊接在一起。 This applies especially in North America where the welder does not have to be "approved" as he has to be in Europe and Australia. 这一做法尤其适用于北美的地方焊机，并不一定要“批准” ，因为他要在欧洲及澳洲。 This difference in regulations, historically, has to do with the "pioneer spirit" and explains why welded steel fuselages are so common here and practically nowhere else. 这种差异在规例，从历史上看，要与“先锋精神” ，并解释了为什么钢筋焊接机身是如此普遍和这里几乎没有其他人。

　　We will be discussing tubes and welded steel structures in more detail later and go now to "artificial wood" or composite structures. 我们将要讨论管及焊接钢结构在稍后更详细地去和现在的“人造木材”或复合材料结构。

　　COMPOSITE MATERIALS 复合材料

　　The designer of composite aircraft simply uses fibers in the desired direction exactly where and in the amount required. 设计师的复合飞机只需使用纤维在所期望的方向，正是在何处及以所需的金额。 The fibers are embedded in resin to hold them in place and provide the required support against buckling. 纤维中嵌入的树脂举行他们在的地方，并提供必要的支持对屈曲。 Instead of plywood or sheet metal which allows single curvature only, the composite designer uses cloth where the fibers are laid in two directions .(the woven thread and weft) also embedded in resin. 而不是胶合板或金属板材，使单一的曲率只，综合设计师的用途布下纤维是摆在两个方向（梭织线程和纬纱） ，也植根于树脂。 This has the advantage of freedom of shape in double curvature as required by optimum aerodynamic shapes and for very appealing look (importance of esthetics). 这样做的好处自由的形状在双曲率的要求，通过优化气动形状和非常有吸引力的研究（重要性美学） 。

　　Today's fibers (glass, nylon, Kevlar, carbon, whiskers or single crystal fibers of various chemical composition) are very strong, thus the structure becomes very light. 今天的纤维（玻璃，尼龙，芳纶，碳，晶须或单晶纤维的各种化学成分）是非常强烈，因此，结构变得非常轻。 The drawback is very little stiffness. 缺点是很少的刚度。 The structure needs stiffening which is achieved either by the usual discreet stiffeners, -or more elegantly with a sandwich structure: two layers of thin uni- or bi-directional fibers are held apart by a lightweight core (foam or "honeycomb"). 结构需要加劲，这是实现由一般谨慎的加劲， -或比较优雅与三明治结构：两层薄单向或双向定向纤维举行，除了由一个轻量级的核心（泡沫或“蜂窝” ） 。 This allows the designer to achieve the required inertia or stiffness. 这使得设计师能够达到所需的惯性或刚度。

　　From an engineering standpoint, this method is very attractive and supported by many authorities because it allows new developments which are required in case of war. 从工程角度来看，这种方法是非常有吸引力和支持，许多当局，因为它允许新的发展，这是需要在案件的战争。 (The US having no titanium or chromium needs to develop practical alternatives.) But this method also has its drawbacks for homebuilding: A mold is needed, and very strict quality control is a must for the right amount of fibers and resin and for good adhesion between both to prevent too "dry" or "wet" a structure. （美国没有钛或铬的需要，制定切实可行的办法。 ） ，但这种方法也有其缺点，为住宅建设：模具是必要的，非常严格的质量控制是一个必须为正确的金额纤维和树脂和良好的粘附双方以防止太“干”或“湿”的结构。 Also the curing of the resin is quite sensitive to temperature, humidity and pressure. 也固化树脂是相当敏感的温度，湿度和压力。 Finally, the resins are active chemicals which will not only produce the well known allergies but also the chemicals that attack our body (especially the eyes and lungs) and they have the unfortunate property of being cumulatively damaging and the result (in particular deterioration of the eye) shows up only years after initial contact. 最后，树脂是积极的化学品，不但会产生人所共知的过敏，而且毒化学品的攻击我们的身体（尤其是眼睛和肺部） ，他们有不幸的财产被破坏和累积的结果（尤其是恶化的眼）表明，只有年后初步接触。

　　Another disadvantage of the resins is their limited shelf life, ie, if the resin is not used within the specified time lapse after manufacturing, the results may be unsatisfactory and unsafe. 另一个不利的树脂是其有限的货架寿命，即，如果树脂是没有用在指定时间后失效制造业，结果可能不理想的和不安全的。

　　Finally unless the molds are very well designed, manufactured and maintained, the outside of the structure needs an often underestimated amount of "elbow grease" to provide the desired finish. 最后，除非模具是很好的设计，制造和维护，外面的结构，需要有一个常常被低估的金额“肘油脂” ，以提供理想的完成。 Also a lot of care must be exercised as sanding down too much will result in a weaker structure. 也有很多，必须小心行使砂光下跌太多会导致在一个较弱的结构。 Historically, composites had their peak a couple of years ago. 从历史上看，复合材料有其高峰期在数年前。 Today it is known (and proven by all those homebuilder "workshops") that only specialists can come up with a reliable and perfect structure and even the specialists take a chance on their own health. 今天，这是众所周知的（和证明，所有这些住房“讲习班” ） ，只有专家可以想出了一个可靠的和完善的结构和专家，甚至有一个机会，对自己的健康。

　　LET'S SUMMARIZE 让我们总结

　　Nature provides a raw material beautifully suited to aircraft structures. 性质提供了原料精美，适合飞机结构。 Unfortunately we are exploiting nature and today it is hard to find supplies of wood and plywood of the required sizes and quality. 不幸的是，我们利用的性质和今天，这是很难找到的供应木材和胶合板所需要的规模和质量。

　　Aluminum alloys in extruded and laminated form are an attractive alternative especially as they are easy to supply with guaranteed properties. 铝合金在挤压和夹层的形式，是一个具吸引力的替代性，特别是作为它们很容易供应，保证性能。

　　Steel tubing continues to be very popular in North America as welding does not seem to create any problems as feared in other parts of the world. 钢管仍然非常受欢迎，在北美，作为焊接似乎没有产生任何问题，恐怕在世界其他地方。 A tubular structure is fabric covered. 一管状结构是织物所涵盖的。

　　Composites can be looked at as "artificial wood" from a structural standpoint. 复合材料可以看作为“人造木材”从一个结构性的立场。 Like everything artificial, it can be better than the natural product but the manufacturer needs to incorporate in the manufacturing process the wisdom provided by nature and/or the quality provided by other raw material's manufacturers (aluminum, chrome moly steel). 像一切人为的，它可以得到更好的比天然产物，但制造商的需要，把在制造过程中的智慧所提供的性质和/或质量所提供的其他原料的制造商（铝，铬钼钢） 。 This is in addition to an expensive mold, and the hazards to our own health (and our family's health when building in the basement). 这是在除了一个昂贵的模具，以及危害自己的健康（和我们的家庭的健康，当建设中的地下室） 。

　　In our next column, we will look closely at the various metal alloys suitable for light plane construction. 在我们下一步的专栏中，我们将密切关注各种金属合金适合轻型飞机建设。

dymodel

　　轻型飞机原料

　　By  由

　　[This article is part 2 of a series, where aeronautical engineer Chris Heintz discusses light aircraft design and construction.] [此文章是第2部分了一系列，其中的航空工程师克里斯heintz讨论了轻型飞机的设计和建造。 ]

　　In this month's column, in contrast to our last column in the December '85 issue of LIGHT PLANE WORLD, we will discuss the structural standpoints of the raw materials of which our aircraft are built. 在这一个月的专栏中，在对比我们的最后一栏在12月'85的问题，轻型飞机的世界上，我们将讨论的 结构性 的 立场 原料，其中我们的飞机是建立。 This viewpoint is quite different from the supply possibilities, and also the ease and safety of use (our own health as well as the aircraft’s structural integrity). 这一观点是颇为不同的从供应的可能性，也很容易和安全使用（我们自己的健康，以及为飞机的结构完整性） 。

　　One important word of caution, before we begin, to the "would-be designer" - the technical data presented here are typical values which are very adequate to compare materials, but are not the guaranteed values which must be used in structural analysis. 一个重要的字谨慎，在我们开始，到“想成为设计师” -技术数据在这里是典型的价值观是很充足的比较材料，但不保证的价值观，必须用在结构分析。 (See ANC-18 for wood, and MIL-HDBK-5 and other handbooks for metals, the manufacturer's specifications for fibers, resins and their proven combinations). Special tests are required for new combinations and special "unconventional" applications. （见非国大- 18木，和MIL - hdbk - 5手册和其他金属，制造商的规格为纤维，树脂及他们的证明，组合） 。特殊的测试所需的新组合和特殊的“非传统”的申请。

　　Designing a new aircraft, or redesigning (modifying) an existing design, should be done by the amateur builder only with the help of a reputable light aircraft designer. 设计一个新的飞机，或重新设计（修改）现有的设计，应该做的事，由业余建设者，只有借助一个有信誉的轻型飞机设计师。 The following situations are to be avoided: 1) too heavy a structure and, 2) not a strong enough airframe. 有下列情形是要避免： 1 ）过重的结构， 2 ）不是一个足够强大的机体。 Anyone who has been around amateur builders and designers long enough has seen them tapping on their wings or fuselage and saying, "That's strong enough", but is it really? 任何人谁一直围绕业余的建设者和设计者足够长的看到了他们的窃听他们的翅膀或机身和说， “强大的不够” ，但是否真的呢？

　　

　　At low speed and high load factors, say a 75 degree bank and a speed just over 2.5 times the stall speed, the aerodynamic load is inclined some 20 to 30 degrees forward. 在低速和高负荷的因素，例如75度银行和速度刚刚超过2.5倍，该档位的速度，气动载荷是倾向一些20至30度前进。 Will this wing which may even have been "sand bag tested" in the "normal" load condition stand it? 这是否会永，其中甚至可能已被“砂袋测试” ，在“正常”的负载条件下的立场呢？ Or will the wing, which has been improved from a NACA 23012 profile by adding the "STOL" nose cuff to improve its original abrupt stall characteristics (because not correctly twisted), stand up to the new torsional loads due to a four-fold increase in the twisting moment coefficient (cm from -.008 to -18)? 或将机翼，其中已有所改善，从naca 23012简介加入“ stol ”鼻子袖套，以改善其原有突然失速特性（因为没有正确的扭曲） ，站起来，向新的扭转载荷，由于四倍增加在扭力矩系数（厘米从-0 08至- 18） ？

　　Such loads are usually associated with an increase in cruise speed, say from 130 mph to 150 mph, by increasing the original design horsepower from 100 bhp to 150 bhp. 这种载荷通常与增加在巡航速度，例如从一三零英里每小时150哩，增加了原设计的马力从100匹至150匹马力。 This will further increase the torsion load on the wing by a factor of (150/130) 2 . 这将进一步增加，扭转载荷对机翼由一个因素（一百三十○分之一百五十零） 2 。 Will your "new" wing stand those loads? 将您的“新”右翼立场，这些负荷？ If you are not sure, you better ask somebody who re ally knows. 如果您不知道，你最好问，有人重新盟友，谁知道。

　　We will discuss the above formulas within the course of this series, but for this month's column, we will stick strictly to a comparison of materials. 我们将讨论上述公式内，当然这一系列，但本月份的专栏中，我们将坚持严格的比较材料。 The values themselves should not be used as design data. 自己的价值观不应当被用来作为设计数据。


重点是我们的第一个月，这是我们的表 ，让典型值为各种原料。

Column 1 lists the standard materials which are easily available at a reasonable cost. 第1栏列出的标准材料，很容易可在一个合理的成本。 As this column is not intended to be an "academic lecture," we will not discuss "fantastic" materials because we cannot afford them anyway. 由于这栏是不打算成为一个“学术讲座， ”我们将不会讨论“神奇”材料，因为我们不能给予他们无论如何。 We want to acquire a simple, good understanding of practical solutions and practical materials. 我们要学习一个简单的，良好的认识，切实的解决办法和实际材料。

Some of the materials that fall along the borderline between practical and impractical are: 一些材料是属于沿之间的界线的实际和不切实际的是：

    * Magnesium: An expensive material. 镁：一种昂贵的材料。 Castings are the only readily available forms. 铸件是唯一的现成的形式。 Special precaution must be taken when machining magnesium because this metal burns when hot. 特别的预防措施，必须采取时，加工镁，因为这金属烧伤时的热点。
    * Titanium: A very expensive material. 钛：一种非常昂贵的材料。 Very tough and difficult to machine. 很辛苦和困难的机器。
    * Carbon Fibers: Still very expensive materials. 碳纤维：仍是非常昂贵的材料。
    * Kevlar Fibers: Very expensive and also critical to work with because it is hard to "soak" in the resin. Kevlar纤维：非常昂贵，也是至关重要的工作，因为这是很难“泡”在树脂。 When this technique is mastered, the resulting structure is very strong, but it also lacks in stiffness. 当这一技术的掌握，由此产生的结构是很强烈，但也缺乏在刚度。

The values given in our Table are for fiberglass with polyester resins, which is very easy to use compared to the more critical (viscous) epoxy fiberglass. 价值观给予我们的表为玻璃纤维与聚酯树脂，这是非常容易使用的相比，更重要的（粘性）环氧玻璃纤维。 Epoxy fiberglass provides a somewhat stiffer and stronger result. 环氧玻璃纤维提供了一个有点严厉和强烈的结果。 ("Prepreg," epoxy pre-impregnated cloth, is still very expensive, has a limited shelf life and needs pressure as well as an oven to cure). （ “预浸， ”环氧预浸渍布，仍是非常昂贵的，有限的货架寿命和需求的压力，以及作为一个烤箱治疗） 。

Aluminum Alloy 7075 - "T-whatever", has been left out intentionally as it is a very strong but also very brittle alloy. 铝合金7075 -“ T型什么” ，已被淘汰故意，因为它是一个非常强劲，但也很脆合金。 It is comparable to glass. 这是可比的玻璃。 Unless we state a "life" for a specified part made of 7075, it is unsafe to use this alloy in most light aircraft. 除非我们国家的“生命”为指定的一部分制成的7075 ，这是不安全使用这种合金在大多数轻型飞机。 (We are not an airline with an on-going maintenance schedule - we want to fly our planes year after year without having to worry about fatigue of our aircraft structure, something we'll talk about later.) （我们不是一航空公司与一对正在进行的维修时间表-我们要飞我们的飞机，年复一年，不必担心疲劳我们的飞机结构，我们将谈论后） 。

Columns 2 through 6: 列2至6 ：
Columns 2 through 6 list the relevant material properties in metric units. 列2至6的名单，有关材料性能在十进制单位。 The multiplying factor on the bottom line will transform the figures into North American Units. 该乘以因子对底线将变换的数字，到北美单位。

Column 2 , the density (d), is the weight divided by the volume. 第2栏 ， 密度 （ D ） ，是体重除以音量。

Column 3 , the yield stress (fy), is the stress (load per area) at which there will be a permanent deformation after unloading (the material has yielded, given way ... ). 第3栏 ， 屈服应力 （风云） ，是应力（负荷，每个地区） ，其中会有一个永久变形，卸载后（该材料具有取得，由于方法... ）

dymodel

材料		d d	fy 风云	fu 傅	e e	E/10 3 e/10 3	E/d西班牙/	Root 2 of N/d 根2的 N /	Root 3 of E/d 根3电子商务/	fu/d 福/
	1 1	2 2	3 3	4 4	5 5	6 6	7 7	8 8	9 9	10 10
Wood 木材	Spruce 云杉	.45 0.45	- -	3.5/11 3.5/11	- -	1.4 1.4	2200 2200	70 70	22.0 22.0	(15) （ 15 ）
	Poplar 杨树	.43 0.43	- -	30/12 30/12	- -	1.0 1.0	2200 2200	70 70	22.0 22.0	(15) （ 15 ）
	Oregon Pine 俄勒冈州的松树	.56 0.56	- -	4.0/13 4.0/13	- -	1.5 1.5	2200 2200	70 70	22.0 22.0	(15) （ 15 ）
Fiberglass 玻璃纤维	Matte 磨砂	2.2 2.2	- -	15 15	- -	1.5 1.5	700 700	17 17	5.0 5.0	7 7
(70% Glass) （ 70 ％玻璃）	Woven 梭织	2.2 2.2	- -	35 35	- -	2.0 2.0	900 900	20 20	6.0 6.0	16 16
	Unidirectional 单向	2.2 2.2	- -	60 60	- -	3.5 3.5	1500 1500	27 27	7.0 7.0	27 27
Alum. 明矾。 Alloy 合金	5052-H34 5052 - h34	2.7 2.7	16 16	24 24	4 4	7.1 7.1	2600 2600	30 30	7.0 7.0	11 11
	8086-H34 8086 - h34	2.7 2.7	22 22	31 31	5 5	7.1 7.1	2600 2600	30 30	7.0 7.0	11 11
	6061 -T6 6061 - T6的	2.7 2.7	24 24	26 26	9 9	7.1 7.1	2600 2600	30 30	7.0 7.0	11 11
	6351 -T6 6351 - T6的	2.7 2.7	25 25	28 28	9 9	7.1 7.1	2600 2600	30 30	7.0 7.0	11 11
	6063-T6 6063 - T6的	2.7 2.7	17 17	21 21	9 9	7.1 7.1	2600 2600	30 30	7.0 7.0	11 11
	2024-T3 2024 - T3号	2.8 2.8	25 25	41 41	12 12	7.2 7.2	2600 2600	30 30	7.0 7.0	14 14
Steel AISI 钢艾西	1026 1026	7.8 7.8	25 25	38 38	15 15	21.0 21.0	2700 2700	18 18	3.5 3.5	5 5
	4130 N (4140) 4130 N （下4140 ）	7.8 7.8	42 42	63 63	10 10	21.0 21.0	2700 2700	18 18	3.5 3.5	7 7
Lead 领导		11.3 3月11日	- -	- -	- -	- -	- -	- -	- -	- -
Magnesium Alloy 镁合金		1.8 1.8	20 20	30 30	- -	4.5 4.5	2500 2500	37 37	9.0 9.0	16 16
Titanium 钛		4.5 4.5	50 50	80 80	-	11.0 11.0	2400 2400	23 23	5.0 5.0	18 18
Units for above 单位以上		kg/dm 3 公斤/管理部3	kg/mm 2 公斤/毫米2	kg/mm 2 公斤/毫米2	% ％	kg/mm 2 公斤/毫米2	km 公里	kg -½ m 2 公斤-3 .5米 2	kg 2/3 m 1/3 磅2 / 3米的1 / 3	km 公里
to obtain: 获得：		lbs/cu 3 磅/铜3	KSI ksi	KSI ksi	% ％	KSI ksi
multiply by: 乘以：		.0357 0.0357	1420 1420	1420 1420	- -	1420 1420

dymodel

    注意：要表：各单位使用的是一般的度量在Si （或mkfs ）国际技术体系的地方公斤女=公斤的力量（而不是大众作为在公制MKS富于，用于在物理） 。惯常的北美单位和转换因素也供应，在底线。

Column 4 , the ultimate stress (fu), is the stress (load per area) at which it cannot carry a further load increase. 第4栏 ， 极限应力 （富） ，是应力（负荷，每个地区） ，它不能进行进一步的负荷增加。 It is the maximum load before failure. 这是最高负荷前失败的。

Column 5 , the elongation at ultimate stress (e), in percentage gives an indication of the 'Toughness" of the material. 第5栏 ， 伸长率在极限应力 （ e ）项，在百分比给出了一个说明'韧性“的物质。

Column 6 lists the Yongs Modular or Modulus of Elasticity (E), which is the steepness of the stress/strain diagram as shown in Figure 1 . 第6栏列出yongs模块化或弹性模量 （五） ，这是陡峭的应力/应变图如图1所示 。

Important Note: For wood, the tension is much greater (2 to 3 times) than the compression. 重要注意事项：木材，紧张的要大得多（ 2到3倍） ，比压缩。 Both values are given in the Table. 这两个值，给出了在表中。 For fiberglass, the same applies, but the yield is so dependent on the manufacturing process that we cannot even give 'Iypical values'. 为玻璃纤维，这同样适用，但产量是如此依赖于制造过程中，我们甚至不能给' iypical价值观' 。

　　

　　Both wood and fiberglass need special analysis procedures to predict the strength of a specific structural member. 木材和玻璃纤维需要特别的分析程序，以预测的力量，一个具体的结构成员。 This analysis is quite different from classic strength of material formulas. 这一分析是颇为不同的，从经典的力量材料公式。 Today we have to warn the "I wood' be designer" that his off-the-shelf computer program may be okay for metal, but not for wood and composites, even with the so-called "averaging" factors. 今天，我们要警告： “我木'设计师” ，他的小康-现成的计算机程序可能会好，用于金属，但不是对木材和复合材料，即使有所谓的“平均”因素。 We will not discuss further here, but the serious student may want a comprehensive textbook for engineers - not technicians who do not have enough mathematical background. (STRENGTH OF MATERIALS by Timoshenko, is a recommended sourcebook - Timoshenko, STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, Part 1, 1955, "Elementary Theory and Problems", $24.95; Part 11, 1956, "Advanced Theory and Problems", $31.50. Available from Krueger Publishing Company, PO Box 9542, Melbourne, FL 32902-9542.) 我们不会在这里作进一步讨论，但严重的学生可能会想要一个全面的教科书为工程师-不是技术员谁没有足够的数学背景。 （ 材料强度由季莫申科，是一种建议的原始资料-季莫申科，材料强度，第1部分， 1955年， “基本理论与问题” ， 24.95美元;第11部分， 1956年， “先进的理论和问题” ，三十一点五零美元。可从克鲁格出版公司，邮政信箱9542 ，墨尔本，佛罗里达州32902-9542 ） 。

　　You see, math formulas and computers are tools like, say, a planer. 你看，数学公式和电脑是工具一样，也就是说，刨床。 if you know how to set them, where and how to use them, you can do very well with them. 如果你知道如何设置他们，在何处及如何使用它们，你可以做的很好。 But if you play the sorcerer's apprentice, it becomes dangerous for the tool, the operator and the material. 但是，如果你扮演巫师的徒弟，就变成危险的工具，经营者和材料。

　　

　　Columns 7 to 10: Columns 7 to 10 are values which allow the comparison of materials from a weight standpoint (the above referenced text by Timoshenko will also show you why we use those "funny" looking values). 列7至10 ：专栏7日至10价值观容许的比较材料重量的立场（以上引用的案文是由季莫申科也将显示您为什么我们使用那些“搞笑”展望值） 。

第7栏给出了刚度夹心建设。较高的价值，更严厉的建设。 From the Table, we see that metals are high wood comes close, but fiberglass is low: which means fiberglass will be heavier for the same stiffness. 从表中，我们看到金属高木材接近，但玻璃纤维是低：这意味着玻璃纤维会加重为同一刚度。

Column 8 shows the column buckling resistance for the same geometric shapes. 第8栏显示柱屈曲阻力为同一几何形状。 This time, wood is better than the light alloys, coming before steel and fiberglass. 这个时候，木材优于轻合金，未来之前，钢铁和玻璃纤维。 (Surprisingly, the usual welded steel tube fuselage is not very weight efficient.) （奇怪的是，一般焊接钢管的机身并不十分重效率） 。

Column 9 gives the plate buckling stiffness, which is also a shear strength measure. 第9栏给出了板的屈曲刚度，这也是抗剪强度的措施。 Here again, wood (plywood) is in a very good position before aluminum and fiberglass, with steel not very good. 在这里再次，木材（胶合板）是在一个很好的位置之前，铝和玻璃纤维，钢不是很好。

Column 10 provides a crude way of measuring the strength to weight ratio of materials because it does not take into account the various ways the material is used in "light structures". 第10栏提供了一个粗略的方式测量强度重量比的材料，因为它并没有顾及各种方式的物质是用来在“轻型结构” 。 According to this primitive way of looking, unidirectional fibers are very good, followed by high strength (2024) aluminum and wood, then the more common aluminum alloys and finally steel. 根据这一原始的方式看，单向纤维是很好的，其次是高强度（ 2024 ） ，铝和木材，然后较为常见的铝合金和钢的最后。

From just this simple table, we find there is not one material that provides an overwhelming solution to all the factors that must be considered in designing a light aircraft. 从刚才这个简单的表，我们发现有没有一个材料，提供了一个解决方案，以压倒性的所有因素必须加以考虑，在设计一种轻型飞机。 Each material has some advantage somewhere. 每一种材料有一定的优势某处。 The designer's choice (no preconceived idea) will make a good aircraft structure ... 设计师的选择（无成见）将作出一个很好的飞机结构... if the choice is good! 如果选择是好的！

dymodel

　　[This article is part of a series, where aeronautical engineer Chris Heintz discusses light aircraft design and construction.] [此文章是一系列行动的一部分，那里的航空工程师克里斯heintz讨论了轻型飞机的设计和建造。 ]

　　With the mild spring weather upon us, it's time to get ready for that first flight of your homebuilt aircraft. 与温和的春季天气后，我们而言，它的时间做好准备为首次飞行您的homebuilt飞机。 The following information is not crash course on how to become a prototype test pilot; rather, it's simply instructions on how to perform that first flight of your aircraft built from plans or a kit. 以下信息是不会崩溃，当然对如何成为一个原型试验的试验;相反，它的简单指示，就如何执行这项工作的第一次飞行您的飞机从兴建计划或一包。

　　For months you have been hard at work building your aircraft, spending all on your homebuilt aircraft. 几个月来你一直努力工作，建设您的飞机，所有的开支在您homebuilt飞机。 The following information is not a crash course on how to become a prototype test pilot; rather, current again - it's time to start getting ready for the first flight of your air craft. 以下信息是不是一个崩溃的过程中就如何成为一个原型试验的试验，而目前的再次-它的时间开始准备的第一次飞行您的飞机。

　　If you feel rusty, get some dual, then fly solo and regain your confidence in an aircraft that's similar to the one you've just completed. 如果您觉得生锈的，得到一些双，然后飞回Solo和恢复您的信心在飞机上的一个类似您刚刚完成。 Even "hangar flying" can be useful, if you can separate the truth from all the bragging and "big stories." 甚至“机库的飞行”可以是有益的，如果你能分开，实事求是，一切吹牛和“大故事” 。

　　Of course, your aircraft must be ready as well, and this includes: 当然，您的飞机必须随时准备为好，这包括：

　　Weight and balance within the designer's specifications. 重量和平衡设计师的规格。

　　See Figure  见图

　　"Run up" of the engine as per manufacturer's recommendations. “跑起来”的引擎，每制造商的建议。 (This is especially important with the two-cycle engines that have become more and more popular recently.) （这一点尤其重要，与两个周期的引擎已成为更流行，最近） 。

　　A check of the powerplant (ie, engine, carburetor, intake and exhaust manifold, reduction unit if applicable and propeller) to verify that it meets the manufacturer's static RPM. 检查该电站（即发动机，化油器，进气口和排气多方面的，减少单位如果适用和螺旋桨）以验证它是否符合制造商的静态每分钟转速。 An easy way of checking the THRUST is to inflate the tires "hard," rest them on a smooth and flat surface - plywood works well and attach a large fish scale at the aircraft's tail end. 一个简单的方法进行检查的主旨是夸大轮胎“硬” ，休息，他们就顺利和平坦表面-胶合板运作良好，并重视大型鱼类的规模在飞机的尾。 Start the engine, warm it up, go full throttle and have a friend, without glasses, read the scale. 启动发动机，暖起来，去充分油门和有一个朋友，没有眼镜，看规模。 Thrust in pounds should be approximately four times the horsepower for a cruise prop, five times the horsepower for a climb prop. 重点在英镑应大约4倍的马力，为邮轮的道具， 5倍，马力为攀登道具。 You may want to do it several times for better accuracy. 您可能会想要做多次，为更好的准确性。

　　See Figure  and  见图和

　　

　　Remember, though, the engine cooling system is not designed for indefinite full throttle on the ground. 请记住，虽然，发动机冷却系统并非设计为无限期充分油门在地面上。 Do not exceed 30 seconds full open and allow three minutes cooling at 150 percent idle before the next test. 不超过30秒，充分开放，并允许3分钟冷却在150 ％闲置之前，未来的考验。 Also note that the cowling must be installed as the baffling only ducts air past the cooling fins with the cowl properly installed. 还注意到，该罩，必须安装作为令人费解，只有管道，过去的空气冷却鳍与cowl正确安装。 You can burn out the aircraft engine in less than 30 seconds full throttle without a cowl. 您可以烧出飞机发动机在不到30秒，充分油门没有一个cowl 。 The cowl is not only an aesthetic component but also an important part of the cooling system. 该cowl不仅是美学的组成部分，但也是一个重要的部分的冷却系统。

　　Of course, each time the engine is running either you or a knowledgeable pilot must be at the controls. 当然，每一次发动机运行您或您的知识化试验必须在管制。 Tie the aircraft down for extra precaution. 配合飞机下来额外的预防措施。

　　

　　During ground run up of the engine, check that no part of the aircraft is shaking and/or vibrating heavily - check every 200 rpm from idle to full open and watch the tail and other control surfaces as well as the bottom of the fuselage. 在地面运行的发动机，检查的任何部分飞机是摇头和/或振动严重-检查每2 00每分钟转速从闲置，以充分开放和观赏的尾巴和其他控制面以及底部的机身。

　　It is also vital to check that the fuel supply will be adequate in the most critical configuration - at full power usually in tail low attitude. 这亦是非常重要的检查燃料供应将足以在最关键的配置-在全功率通常在尾低的态度。 The fuel "head", ie - height of fuel from carburetor to fuel tank must meet the minimum level for continued operation with little more than the unusable fuel in the tank. 燃料的“元首” ，即-高度的燃料从化油器到油箱必须符合的最低水平，为继续运作与稍多于使用的燃料在坦克。

　　At the same time it is important to check the fuel quantity gauge (empty equals when engine stops running in above critical attitude) at 1/4, 1/2, 3/4 and full. 在同一时间，这是很重要的要检查燃油量计（空平等时，发动机停止运行，在上述批判的态度）在1 / 4 ， 1 / 2 ， 3 / 4和充分。 This is not only important for fuel consumption and range check but also to detect quickly if sudden unusually high fuel consumption develops (ie leak). 这不仅是重要的燃料消耗和各种检查，而且检测快速，如果突然异常高的燃料消耗的发展（即泄漏） 。

　　And, of course, by this time you either know that you can easily inspect your engine because the cowl comes off with six DZUS fasteners or you realize that you should look under the cowl, even if it requires unscrewing 20 fasteners for inspection! ，当然，这个时候，您知道，您可以很容易地检查您的引擎，因为cowl说到小康与6祖斯紧固件，或者您知道，你应该看看下cowl ，即使它要求unscrewing 20紧固件接受检查！

　　Taxi Tests 的士测试

　　Do not start taxi tests unless the aircraft has 1-1/2 hour fuel supply and is loaded (with ballast if required) in the mid-range of its center of gravity travel; it you don't follow these guidelines, you may find yourself in the air because you are not at gross (lower stall speed) and your error in the indicated air speed may be significant. 不启动的士测试，除非飞机1-1/2小时的燃料供应和加载（与镇流器如果需要的话）在中期其的重心旅行;你不遵守这些指引，您可能会发现自己在空气中，因为你是不是在毛额（较低档的速度）和您的错误，在显示空气的速度可能会显着。 Remember, you also are in ground effect. 请记住，您也有在地面效应。

　　

　　During the taxi runs, check the brakes, the steering and get familiar with the noise level, seat belt fastening and release, control position (carburetor heat, fuel valve, trim, mixture, etc.) and the important instruments such as air speed and rpm, altimeter, engine temperatures and pressures. 在的士运行，检查刹车，督导和熟悉的噪音水平，安全带紧固和释放，控制地位（化油器热，燃料阀，修剪，混合等） ，以及重要的文书，如空气的速度和每分钟转速，测高计，引擎的温度和压力。 When you do taxi tests at speeds above 50 percent of the stall speed given by the designer, be prepared to (accidentally) lift off. 当您这样做的士测试的速度在50 ％以上的摊位速度所提供的设计师，准备（意外）升空。 If there is enough runway left, throttle back and put it down again. 如果有足够的跑道左侧，油门回把它再次下跌。 Do not push it down, though - it's always such a shame to have to repair a brand new aircraft! 不推下来，虽然-它总是这样的耻辱，已修复了一个全新的飞机！

　　Make some 10 taxi runs on the runway to get the feeling of when to abort take off with sufficient runway to stop with moderate use of the brakes. 作出一些10的士运行在跑道上获得的感觉时，放弃起飞，有足够的跑道停止与温和的使用刹车。 This helps familiarize you with initial acceleration, and a bit (only a bit) with how the controls feel (light, heavy, sensitive, sluggish). 这有助于熟悉你与初步加速度，以及位（只有位元）如何控制感觉（轻，重，敏感，呆滞） 。 Always trim at the mid-range as you are only guessing where it should be set. 一直修剪在中程正如你只是猜测，而应定。

　　Okay, your engine runs well, brakes work, instruments seem okay, you handle the aircraft with confidence on the ground (if it's a taildragger and you have little conventional gear experience that will take some time getting used to. A taildragger is less stable on the ground than a tricycle gear plane). 好吧，您的引擎来运行良好，制动器工作，文书似乎好了，您处理飞机的信心，在地面上（如果它的一taildragger和你有没有传统的齿轮的经验，这将需要一些时间习惯。 taildragger少，对稳定地面比三轮车齿轮平面） 。 It is very important you feel comfortable and "at home" in the pilot's seat. 这是非常重要的，你感到舒服和“家”在飞行员的座位。

　　First Flight 首次飞行

　　So it is time to go .... 所以现在是时候去....

　　Check once more your center of gravity at mid-range position from the full travel given by the designer. 检查一次，您的重心在中距离的立场，从充分的旅行所给予的设计师。 Check your fuel quantity, check it physically with your eyes or a dipstick, do not rely on the fuel gauge until proven reliable. 检查您的燃油量，检查身体，与你的眼睛，或试纸，不依赖燃料衡量，直到证明可靠。

　　Okay, the aircraft is ready, but how about you? 好吧，这架飞机是准备，但如何你呢？

　　First of all, you must want to do that first flight - do not let anyone push you into the air, even if he/she is a well-meaning relative or friend. 首先，你必须要这样做的第一次飞行-不要让任何人把你到空气中，即使他/她是一个良好的意义亲戚或朋友。 Second, you must be relaxed - you may check your astrological sign or biorhythms if you want - but the important thing is you simply feel this is the day! 其次，你必须放宽-您可以检查您的星座或b iorhythms如果你想-但重要的是您只需认为这是一天！ And definitely not with the help of a couple of beers! 和绝对不能与帮助一对夫妇啤酒！

　　Now, check the weather: There should be little or no wind, good visibility (no haze) and at least a 3,000 foot ceiling. 现在，检查天气报告和预报：应该有很少或根本没有风，能见度良好（无烟霞） ，并至少具有3000英尺的上限。 Avoid the time around sunset if your active runway is 22 to 33! 避免时间约夕阳如果您的积极跑道是22至33 ！ And, have as few friends around as possible. 和，有几位朋友，尽可能靠近。 (They have a tendency to make us show off; we can do that later. Now, we just want to get up, gather important information, and come down again as safely as possible, and get a good feel of that beauty sitting out there waiting.) （他们有一种倾向，使我们炫耀;我们可以做的，后来，现在我们只是想起来，收集重要的信息，并再次回落，尽可能安全，并取得了良好的感觉美容坐在那里轮候） 。

　　I have found that the best time for smooth weather is when those so-called friends are still in bed, when only the one reliable friend you really want around shows up. 我发现的最佳时机，顺利的天气是，当那些所谓的朋友仍然在床上，当时只有一个可靠的朋友你真的想靠近显示。 This best time is approximately one hour after sunrise. 这最好的时间是大约一小时，日出后。

　　Proceed with your pre-flight - fuel check, drain fuel system for condensation, water. 与您进行飞行前-燃料检查，流失的燃料系统凝结水。 Then, start the engine, warm it up and taxi to the take off end, check ignition and carburetor heat. 然后，启动发动机，暖起来，乘出租车到起飞，为此，检查点火和化油器热。 Set the altimeter and trim at mid travel. 定测高仪和修剪中旅行。 If you wish, check full throttle rpm (I usually do this during the initial phase of take off). 如果您愿意，请检查充分油门转速（我通常会为此在初期阶段的起飞） 。

　　Line up with the runway and push the throttle full open, not too slowly but not too quickly either. 线与跑道和推动油门全面开放，而不是过于缓慢，但不能太快。 Keep one eye on the air speed, the other on the runway and one ear to the engine; if anything seems abnormal, just shut the craft down, check it and fix it. 保持一只眼睛对空气的速度，其他在跑道上和一入耳引擎;若有的话，似乎不正常，刚才关闭的工艺下来，检查和修复它。 In our lives we get many warnings. 在我们的生活中，我们得到很多警告。 We should listen to them and not have a "stubborn ego." 我们应该听取他们的，而不是有一个“顽固的自我” 。 And, I repeat, checking is not enough. 和，我再说一遍，检查是不够的。 If something is wrong, we have to fix it and then try again! 如果事情是错的，我们要修复它，然后再试一次！ But, today, everything is fine, so we keep the throttle open and very slowly lift the airplane off as soon as you think you are fast enough. 但今天，一切是好的，所以我们保持节气门开放和非常缓慢的电梯飞机起飞尽快你以为你是速度不够快。 Be prepared, it may be very nose heavy or light; we do not know the trim position yet. 准备，它可能是非常沉重的鼻子或轻;我们不知道削减的立场。

　　Now that you are in the air, remember the danger is to hit mother earth again before you want to, so climb gently at some 10/20 mph faster than your lift-off speed. 你现在是在空中，记得的危险是击中地球母亲前，再次你想，所以攀登轻轻地在一些10月20日英里每小时速度比您的升空速度。 Adjust the trim for comfort, check the rpm, airspeed, engine, instruments (if it starts overheating, throttle back a little) . 调整缩减为舒适，检查每分钟转速，飞行速度，引擎，文书（如果它开始过热，油门回一点） 。 . 。 . 。 and relax! 以及放宽！ Not too much, though - keep one eye on the airport to which you want to return. 不算太多，虽然-保持一个着眼于机场到您想要的回报。

　　At two or three thousand feet AGL, still full throttle, level off. 在两个或两个三零零零英尺agl ，仍然充满油门，小康水平。 Push the nose slightly down until altitude no longer increases, note the rpm (this should be less than 110 percent of the red line). 把鼻子略有下降，直到海拔不再增加，注意每分钟转速（这应该是少于110 ％的红线） 。 Is there any unusual noise or vibration you should note? 是否有任何不寻常的噪音或振动，你应该注意呢？

　　Now, throttle back to about 90 percent of above full throttle rpm (this should be approximately 75 percent of cruise) and trim for level flight. 现在，节气门回到大约90 ％以上，充分油门转速（这应该是大约有75 ％的邮轮）和修剪为水平飞行。

　　Finding the Stall Speed 找到该档位的速度

　　Before you land you must know the indicated speed at which the aircraft will stop flying, so you better find out now when you are up high. 之前，你的土地你必须知道表示，速度上，飞机将停止飞行，让您更好地了解现在，当你是高。

　　Relax! 放宽！ Carburetor heat on, throttle gently back (notice the tendency of the nose), now slowly raise the nose to reduce the speed. 化油器热对，油门轻轻回（公告的倾向，鼻子） ，现在慢慢提高的鼻子，以降低车速。 Do not use ailerons, keep the ball centered - or the wings level with your rudder. 不要使用ailerons ，让球为本-或翅膀的水平与您的舵。 Do everything gently and stay relaxed. 竭尽所能，轻轻地，并留放宽。 Keep one eye on the air speed and the other on the ball (or horizon and wing tips). 保持一只眼睛对空气的速度和其他对球（或水平线和机翼的提示） 。 Notice everything: buffeting, stick back pressure, control stops, "oil canning" or other noises.... 通知一切：抖振，坚持回的压力，管制站， “石油换罐头”或其他的噪音… … 。

　　Any well designed and correctly built light plane should have a gentle stall; its nose will gently (more or less!) drop. 任何精心设计的和正确的建成轻型飞机应该有一个温和的失速;鼻子会轻轻地（更多或更少！ ）下降。 One wing may drop faster than the other (slight asymmetry in wing construction, or too little use of the rudder, or gusty weather). 一翼可能下降速度比其他（轻微的不对称性，在永安建设，或太少，使用方向舵，或突发天气） 。 Notice the indicated stall speed then release the stick pressure slowly to increase the airspeed and reattach the air flow over the wing. 通知表示，档位速度，然后释放软硬兼施的压力，慢慢地，以增加飞行速度和重新附加空气流量超过机翼。 Apply full power gently and climb at 130 percent of your stall speed. 适用于完整的权力，轻轻攀登在130 ％ ，您的失速速度。 Trim (this trim setting will be your take off trim in this configuration, weight, CG and flaps up). 修剪（这修剪定将成为您的起飞，修剪在此配置，体重，对照组和皮瓣） 。

　　Check the airport (or are you lost by now?) 检查机场（或你失去了现在？ ）

　　Make another two or three stalls to get a good average reading and feel comfortable. 另两个或三个摊位，取得了良好的平均阅读和感觉舒适。

　　Now come in for a landing: Use 130 percent of stall speed on base and final, aim a few feet above the runway entrance and reduce throttle, then speed only over the runway and just hold her back until the aircraft settles by itself on the ground at the stall speed you now know (do not "pump" her down!) 现在在为登陆：使用130 ％的失速速度对基地和最终目标，几英尺以上的跑道入口和减少油门，然后速度不仅超过跑道和公正的举行，她回，直到飞机下来，本身对地面在失速速度，你现在知道（不“泵”她下来！ ）

　　Without stopping the engine, taxi back for another take off. 不停车的发动机，的士回到另一起飞。 This time set the trim for climb, make the take off rotation at the indicated stall speed, accelerate to 130 percent of stall and let her climb, downwind at "cruise," base and final at 130 percent stall as for the first landing. 这个时候设置修剪爬升，使起飞，轮换在表示档的速度，加快以130 ％的摊位，让她爬，顺风在“邮轮， ”基地和最后在130 ％档为第一登陆。

　　Perform one or two more circuits before you bring her back to her tie down. 执行一个或两个更多的电路之前您带来她回到她的配合。 Correctly done, the above exercises will take 45 to 60 minutes. 正确地做，上述演习将采取45至60分钟。 And now you are no longer afraid of your aircraft: You know it flies and you can handle it! 和现在你不再害怕您的飞机：你知道它苍蝇和您可以处理它！ Your aircraft was designed and built to fly and it does. 您的飞机设计和建造飞机和它。

　　Call the designer of your aircraft and share with him the pleasure of your first flight - both you as the builder and he as the designer deserve it. 请设计师您的飞机，并分享他的乐趣，您的第一次飞行-你作为建设者和他作为设计师应得的。

　　Next time you fly, start using flaps (if applicable). 您下一次飞行，开始使用皮瓣（如适用） 。

　　Next month we will talk some more about the testing that should be completed during those first 15 hours of flying your new light plane. 下个月我们将讨论一些更多有关测试，应可完成，在最初的15小时的飞行您的新的轻型飞机。

dymodel

    性能测试您的飞机

    By Chris Heintz 由Chris heintz

        [This article is part of a series, where aeronautical engineer Chris Heintz discusses light aircraft design and construction.] [此文章是一系列行动的一部分，那里的航空工程师克里斯heintz讨论了轻型飞机的设计和建造。 ]

        The material in this article should provide you with even more in-depth information about your aircraft and its performance. 该材料在这篇文章应为您提供，甚至更深入的资料，您的飞机和其表现。

    After you have completed the first flight of your aircraft (see The First Flight in this series), your next challenge is to get acquainted with your airplane in its various usual (and unusual) flight attitudes and landing conditions so that you feel fully comfortable in your aircraft and have full control over it at all times. 之后，您已经完成了首次飞行您的飞机（见的第一次飞行 ，在这一系列） ，您的下一个挑战，是结识与您的飞机在其各项如常（和不寻常的）态度飞行和着陆条件，使你感到完全舒适的在您的飞机，并有充分的控制权在任何时候。 Only the very first flight should be an exciting adventure. 只有非常的首次飞行，应该是令人兴奋的冒险。 After that, flying your aircraft must become just an enjoyable routine - that's one of the reasons for the FAA's initial flight restrictions on homebuilts. 之后，飞行您的飞机必须成为只是一个愉快的例行-的原因之一，美国联邦航空局的初步飞行的限制， h omebuilts。 But, of course, you will also do much "hangar flying," and when talking about your beautiful new aircraft you should state facts, not guesses; only with hard, true figures can you compare various aircraft. 但是，当然，你也将做“机库的飞行” ，当谈到您美好的新飞机你应该陈述事实，而不是猜测;只有艰苦奋斗，真正的数字可以比较各种飞机。

    The airspeed is perhaps the most controversial figure talked about and we will see how you can obtain the CAS (Corrected Air Speed) from your IAS (indicated Air Speed). 该飞行，也许是最具争议性的数字，谈到我们将看看如何可以获取核证机关（更正空气高速）从您的国际会计准则（表示空气的速度） 。 The IAS is just what it says, "indicated," by your instrument. 国际会计准则，只是说话是算数的， “表示， ”您的乐器。 You want to know the corrections to be applied to your reading so that you will know exactly (within one or two miles) at what speed you are flying at a given altitude on a given day. 你想知道的更正，以适用于您的阅读，这样，您就确切地知道（一或两英里）的速度，使您什么是飞行在某一海拔高度对某一天。

    The following procedure will help you establish those figures: 下列程序将帮助您建立这些数字：

        * Select a straight stretch of road (or railway track) with easy marks (crossover, bridge, police speed marks, etc.) approximately 3/4 to 1-1/2 miles apart. 选择一个直一段道路（或铁路轨道）与容易马克（交叉，桥梁，警方速度马克等）大约3 / 4至1-1/2英里外。 Check the exact distance (D) on an accurate chart (or with your car, etc.). 检查的确切距离（ D ）对一个准确的图表（或与您的汽车，等等） 。 The stretch must be flat, and you do not want any obstructions for at least 2 miles on either end. 拉伸必须平坦，而您不想为任何障碍物至少2英里的两端。
        * The aircraft must be operating well, and you have to know the following (ie, you need adequate instrumentation to obtain these readings) 飞机必须经营好，你必须知道以下（即，你需要有足够的仪器，以取得这些读）
              o aircraft weight (empty, plus fuel, plus occupants) 飞机重量（空，再加上燃料，再加上占用）
              o aircraft center of gravity (in flight, not empty) 飞机的重心（在飞行中，而不是空）
              o outside temperature (Te) 室外温度（德）
              o pressure altitude (Pa) - set the altimeter at 29.9 in. hg. 压力海拔高度（ PA ）的-设定高度表在二十九点九英寸汞柱。
              o indicated air speed (IAS) 表示空气的速度（ IAS ）的
              o engine rpm 引擎每分钟转速
              o engine manifold pressure (PM) if available 发动机多方面的压力（下午）如果可用

    For comparisons the aircraft weight and CG are important as the performance may vary with both (more lift, thus higher drag for heavier weight and the contributing lift and drag of the tail depends on the aircraft CG position). 比较飞机的重量和CG很重要的表现可能会有所不同，与双方（更多的电梯，因此，更高的阻力较重的重量和贡献，升降机及拖曳的尾巴，取决于飞机的CG立场） 。

    The required instrumentation is basic, except that manifold pressure may not be available. 所需的仪器是基本，除了多方面的压力，可能无法使用。 In this case you can either install one or you may not have enough information to determine your power setting (RPM is not enough). 在此情况下，您可以安装一个或您可能没有足够的信息来确定您的权力，设置（每分钟转速是不足够的） 。

    Note: 注意：

       1. the altimeter must be set at the standard SL (sea level) for all these tests; and 高度表必须定于晚上八标准（海平面）为所有这些测试;
       2. the outside temperature sensor gauge must be protected from wind and sun! 外界温度传感器的了解，必须得到保护，免受风和太阳！

    Finally to complete your test equipment you need a stopwatch and "ideal" weather; no wind and no turbulence: a windless early morning - ei, usually anytime within two hours after sunrise provides excellent conditions. 最后，以完成您的测试设备，您需要一个秒表和“理想”的天气;无风，并没有动荡：风清晨-的E I，通常都在两小时内日出后提供了良好的条件。

    The Tests 测试

    If your IAS stall speed is 40 and usual cruise 105 mph (adapt the figures to your aircraft) you will do the runs at 50, 65 , 80, 95, 110 and full open. 如果您的国际会计准则档的速度是40和一般邮轮一〇五英里每小时（适应数字到您的飞机） ，你也将这样做违背了在50 ， 65 ， 80 ， 95 ， 110和全面开放。 Those six runs done three times each will take close to one hour. 这些六分，做了3倍，每个会采取接近一小时。 Two minutes before you reach your first mark, set your speed and then don't touch the throttle again during all three runs at that speed (it may be 48 or 52 mph instead of the intended 50!). 两分钟前，您达到您的第一马克，设定的速度和，然后不再触碰油门再次在所有这三个运行速度（可能是48或五十二英里每小时不是打算50 ！ ） 。 Write down on a prepared paper the IAS, Te, Pa, RPM, PM. 写下来，就准备好文件，国际会计准则，碲，坝，每分钟转速，下午1:00 。 Also note the date, weight, CG and weather conditions (slight wind, no wind, no clouds or structures, etc.) 还注意到日期，体重，对照组及气象条件（轻微的风，无风，没有云彩或结构等）

    Do all the runs at the same altitude (some 300 ft. AGL - above ground level) and fly the aircraft straight along your chosen track, keeping the altitude as constant as possible and measuring the time (T) between the chosen landmarks (over the distance - D). 这样做的所有运行在同一高度（一些三零零英尺agl -地面以上的水平）和飞行的飞机直沿您所选择的轨道，保持高度的不断尽可能和测量时间（ t ） 之间选择地标（以上距离-四 ） 。 Each run consists of a back (T 1 ) and forth (T 2 ) over D (this minimizes wind influence) and as mentioned you do three runs at each speed with large 180 degree turns (no throttle change) at each end. 每个运行构成一回（ 1吨）和提出的（ 2吨）超过D （下，这样做可以减小风的影响）及提到你3分，在每一个速度与180度的大转折（没有油门的变化）在每月底。 All this requires a good pilot, especially at the lower speeds. 所有这些都需要一个良好的试验，特别是在较低的速度。

    The Calculations 计算
　　速度 ：每运行，您将有1吨和2吨。平均实测速度将是：

　　a(i) = 1/2 x (d/ T 1 + d/ T 2 ) for each run. 为每个运行。 And the average run over the (say) 3 run is: 和平均运行超过（说） 3运行是：

　　a = (a (1) + a (2) +a (3) )/3.  

　　Note: If the times T 1 and T 2 are more than five seconds different for consecutive runs, it is simply not accurate enough. 注意：如果时代吨和1吨2以上五秒不同的连续运行时，它根本不是不够准确。 Become a better pilot or wait for more favorable weather. 成为一名更优秀的飞行员或等待更有利的天气。

　　Now make a graph using the above calculated true speed over the IAS. 现在一个图表使用上述计算真正的速度超过了国际会计准则。

　　

   2. 电力 ：与一飞机发动机，制造商提供了一个“海平面和高空表演”图在经营手册：用每分钟转速，下午和PA （您可能忽略了温度校正如果您不是太远小康标准大气压） ，你会找到的权力，订定为每运行。 Without Pm you cannot know it! 而不时你可以不知道！
   3. Altitude : With Pa and Te you will find the density altitude, Pd, by using one of the modern flight computers or the FAA Density Altitude Compensation Chart reproduced below. 海拔高度 ：与PA和碲你会发现密度，高度，钯，用一个现代的飞行电脑或美国联邦航空局的密度海拔补偿图表转载如下。

Now you can compare your aircraft with the figures given by others and especially the designer or manufacturer (or salesman): 现在，您可以比较，您的飞机与提供的数字他人，尤其是设计师或制造商（或推销员） ：

For a given weight and balance and corrected to Sea Level for comparison with others, you use the speed chart. 对于给定的重量和平衡和纠正，以海平面为与他人比较，您使用的速度图。

The stall speed is extrapolated and again corrected to sea level. 该档位的速度是推断，并再次纠正，以海平面。

For cruise speed comparison you need the power setting (75% or 65%); if not available use the full throttle speed which is practical as measured below 3,000 ft.: The available power has about the same correction as the speed below this altitude. 为巡航速度比较您需要的权力，设置（ 75 ％或65 ％ ） ;如果没有可用的充分利用油门速度是可行的衡量下面三〇 〇 〇英尺：可用的电源有大约相同的纠正速度低于这个高度。

Until you have done all the above testing, do not come to the designer and tell him you've got a much better (or worse) aircraft than his prototype. 直到你做了上述所有测试，不来的设计师和告诉他，您有一个更美好的（或更糟的）飞机数量已超过了他的原型。 Remember, only hard, true figures allow comparisons, and to obtain those figures is "hard work." 请记住，只有艰苦奋斗，真正让数字比较，并获得这些数字是“勤奋工作” 。

Good luck and enjoy those early morning performance runs. 好运，享受这些清晨的表现背道而驰。
　　

　　To find density altitude, either at field elevation or while in flight, enter the graph with pressure altitude at left and temperature at base of graph. 找到密度的高度，无论是在外地或抬高，而在飞行中，输入的图形与压力，海拔高度在左侧的温度在相应的图形。 Read density altitude from the sloping lines where the temperature and pressure altitude lines cross. 阅读密度海拔从坡线的地方温度和压力的海拔线交叉。 Pressure altitude for an airport is usually available at any briefing office. 压力海拔高度为一机场，通常可在任何办公室的简报。 If pressure altitude is desired while in flight or on the ground when not otherwise available, it may be found from a pressure altimeter. 如果压力海拔高度是理想的，而在飞行中或在地面上时，没有可用的，否则，它可能会发现从一个压力高度表。 To determine pressure altitude from the altimeter, place the altimeter setting indicator at standard sea level pressure (29.92 inches) and read the indicated altitude which will also be pressure altitude. 以确定的压力，从海拔高度表，地点高度表设定的指标，在标准海平面气压（ 29.92英寸）和阅读表明，海拔也将压力高度。 (Corrections for instrumental error, if any, must be made.) （更正为仪器误差，如有的话，必须作出） 。

　　Example 1: With altimeter setting indicator at 29.92 inches, the altimeter reads 9,500 feet. 例如1 ：与高度表设定的指标，在29.92英寸，高度表内容九千五百英尺。 Outside air temperature is -8 degrees C. Find 9,500 feet (pressure altitude) on the scale at the left side of the graph and follow it across the graph to where it crosses the -8 degree C. line. 室外空气温度是-8度找到九五零零英尺（压力海拔）对规模在左侧的图形，并按照它在整个图的地方，它穿越-8度三线。 Density altitude is 9,000 feet (marked I on the graph). 密度海拔高度是九零零零英尺（显着I对图） 。

　　Example 2: Density altitude is desired for take-off from an airfield at 5,300 feet with a runway temperature of 97 degrees F. (runway temperature is preferable to shelter temperature if available). 例如2 ：密度，高度是理想的为采取小康，从一机场在五千三百英尺与跑道温度97度，英语（跑道温度是可取的住房温度如果有的话） 。 The weather station furnishes a pressure altitude of 4,950 feet. 天气站，提供了压力，海拔四九五○英尺。 Entering graph at 4,950 feet and moving across to 97 degrees F. indicates a density altitude of approximately 8,200 feet (marked 2 on graph). 进入图在四千九百五十英尺和跨越至97度，楼表示密度海拔约八千二百英尺（显着2对图） 。 Note that in the warm air, although pressure altitude is lower than true altitude, density. 请注意，在温暖的空气，虽然压力海拔高度低于真实的高度，密度。 altitude is considerably greater. 高原是相当大。

dymodel

    铆接接头
    Part 1 of 2 第1部分2

    By Chris Heintz , P. Eng 由Chris heintz ，体育工程

        [This article is part of a series, where aeronautical engineer Chris Heintz discusses light aircraft design and construction.] [此文章是一系列行动的一部分，那里的航空工程师克里斯heintz讨论了轻型飞机的设计和建造。 ]

        This month we’ll focus on riveting metal aircraft. explaining the various types of rivets available and the hows and whys of their usage. 这一个月，我们将重点放在铆金属飞机 。 解释各类铆钉可用和 hows 和为什么他们的使用。

    Aircraft raw materials come in different but limited sizes due to manufacturing limitations as well as economical distribution. 飞机的原材料来在不同的，但有限的规模，由于制造业的限制，以及经济分配。 The designer has to choose materials which are available, can be transported to the manufacturing facility (even the homebuilder's basement or garage), can be cut to required sizes with the minimum tools, and can be handled without causing too many rejects due to mishandling ... 设计师选择材料的情况下，可以运到生产厂（甚至住宅的地下室或车库） ，可减少所需的大小与最低工具，可以处理没有造成太多的拒绝，由于处理不当。 .. and still end up with an aircraft of appreciable size, adequate strength and good looks. 和最终仍要与飞机称道的尺寸，足够的实力和良好的期待。 Aircraft can't just be made out of one big sheet of material and "wrapped together." 飞机不能只出于一大资产负债表的物质和“包裹在一起” 。 Rather, various parts have to be formed out of different types of material and joined together. 相反，各个部分都必须形成了不同类型的材料和一起。 Each of those parts carries a load and the fastener that brings these parts together has to carry the load from one part to the other. 上述各部分进行了负荷和紧固件，使这些零件一起已进行的负载从一个部分到其他。 If we have, for example, 1,000 lbs. 如果我们有，例如千磅。 to be carried over from one skin to another, we can choose various ways of achieving this (see figure 1 ). 要进行从一个到另一个皮肤，我们可以选择不同的方式实现这一目标（ 见图1 ） 。

    The designer of an aircraft chooses the solutions best adapted to the materials used - a continuous joint with wood and composites, a single bolt or heavy (thick) fittings with steel; or riveted joints on relatively light gauge materials and/or when the joints are long (to avoid the weight penalty of many steel bolts). 设计师的某型飞机选择的解决方案最适合采用的材料-连续联合与木材和复合材料，一个单一的螺栓或重型（厚）配件钢;或铆接的接缝相对较轻衡量材料和/或当接头长期（以避免重的刑罚，许多钢螺栓） 。

　　

超过50年，铝铆接结构已非常成功，并发现不同程度地对几乎所有的飞机（无论是完整的机体，或只是一个仪表板） 。 They do not fail under static or repeated loads and they do not corrode if the rivets are well chosen and properly set. 他们不失败下的静态或重复荷载和他们不腐蚀，如果铆钉都是精心挑选和正确设置。

How to set the rivets correctly can be learned quite easily and should be explained by the designer when he sells drawings or kits to build an aluminum aircraft. 如何设置铆钉正确可以学到很容易和应加以解释由设计者时，他卖图纸或教材，以建立一个铝飞机。 The choice of rivets is very simple: only 2017 alloy rivets are commercially readily available (these are the "AD" rivets mentioned in earlier columns). 选择的铆钉是很简单的：只有2017合金铆钉的商业现成（这些都是“广告”铆钉提到，在以前的专栏文章） 。 They have good corrosion resistance and are compatible with 2024 and 6061 materials. 他们有良好的耐蚀性和兼容的2024和6061的材料。

Now, let's look at why they are also a good structural fastener. 现在，让我们看看他们为什么也是一个不错的结构紧固件。 (See figure 2 ). （ 见图2 ） 。 First the hole is drilled slightly oversized (via the use of number drills) so that the rivet can easily be introduced after deburring (see Figure 2, item E). 第一孔钻略过大（通过使用人数演习） ，使该铆钉，可以很容易被引入后，毛刺（见图2 ， E 项） 。

 飞机铆，图2

　　

请注意，绘图还表明，正确的铆钉的大小取决于总的金属厚度，被称为“抓地力' ，然后铆钉是压缩（压缩是实现由铆钉'枪”和“ 5.40大律师公会” 。气动枪锤就一方，而从5.40酒吧，这根本是一个沉重的大块钢铁，提供了反应对其他） 。

When the rivet shank is compressed, its diameter grows until the hole is completely filled. 当铆钉小腿被压缩，其直径的增长，直至孔是完全填满。 (See Figure 2 , item F). （ 见图2 ，项目 F ） 。 When we further compress the rivet it can only grow further outside the hole and thus the formed head is shaped (see Figure 2 , item G), which also gives a correct formed head dimension. 当我们进一步压缩铆钉它只能进一步增长以外的孔，从而形成头部的形状（ 见图2 ，项目克） ，这也给出了正确的形成头部的层面。 Note that a visual inspection of the rivet will immediately tell you if the rivet is good or if it has to be drilled out and replaced. 请注意，一目视检查铆钉会立即告诉你，如果铆钉是好的，或如果它要钻出来更换。

Such easy inspection is obviously not possible on a bonded or glued joint, which can cause such joints to be less reliable. 这种容易检查，显然是不可能的保税或胶合板联合，可引起关节等，以减少可靠。

Next, let's look at what makes the set rivet (AD rivet) a good fastener. 接下来，让我们看看什么使设置铆钉（广告铆钉）一个良好的扣件。

   1. First, AD rivets are manufactured with adequate quality control which guarantees you the correct alloy (when you mix bonding cement or resins. you are responsible!) 第一，广告铆钉制造足够的质量控制，保证您正确的合金（当您混合粘接水泥或树脂。你是负责任的！ ）
   2. The rivet fills the hole completely so that no relative motion is possible. 铆钉填充孔，使完全没有相对运动是有可能的。
   3. The original as well as the formed head both rest both very well an the parts having been compressed into place. 原来，以及所形成的头部都休息都很好一零件已被压缩到的地方。 This makes for a snug and sealed joint which will prevent any water from creeping under the heads and corroding underneath. 这使得一个舒适和密封联合，将防止任何水从匍匐下的首长和侵蚀下。

Also very important is the fact that the heads squeeze assembled parts tightly together and when the loads are applied (see arrows on Figure 2 ), part of the load is transmitted from one sheet to the other by friction. 也是非常重要的事实是，元首挤压组装零件，紧紧在一起，当负荷应用（见箭头， 图2 ） ，部分的负载是从一个资产负债表，向其他摩擦。 It just happens in aircraft (this is not the case with racing cars) that the part of the load transmitted by friction corresponds to the high frequency engine loads which would otherwise fatigue the rivet (or require an overdesign of the rivet joint which is done in racing cars where the engine vibration loads are much larger with respect to the static loads). 它恰恰是在飞机（这是情况并非如此，与赛车）表示，该部分的负载转交摩擦对应到高频率的引擎负荷，其中，否则疲劳铆钉（或要求一overdesign该铆接这是在做赛车如发动机的振动荷载大得多方面的静态载荷） 。 As mentioned, solid riveting when correctly done is an excellent fastener - both reliable and durable. 如上所述，铆固时，正确地做是一个很好的紧固件-既可靠和持久的。 But it also has some drawbacks: 但它也有一些缺点：

   1. You need special equipment (you'll need to buy an air compressor, rivet gun(s), rivet snaps and bucking bars); 您需要特殊设备（您需要购买空气压缩机，铆钉枪（ s ）款，铆钉卡和酒吧5.40 ） ;
   2. You need some expertise and prior practice (you’ll need a good teacher for this - errors can be costly in more ways than one); 您需要一些事先的专业知识和实践（您需要一个好的老师，这-错误将会付出很高的代价，在更多的办法比1 ） ;
   3. It is noisy (your family and neighbors may object to your setting rivets in your basement or garage after 10 pm or on Sunday morning . . . and that is just when you have the time for it); 这是噪音（您的家人和邻居，可能会反对您的设置铆钉在您的地下室或车库后，晚上十时或在周日上午。 。 。这是刚刚当您有时间，为它） ;
   4. You need access to both sides of the parts to be assembled (and this is obviously not always easy or possible: How will you get the bucking bar inside an aileron of a small aircraft?). 您需要访问，双方的零件组装， （这显然并不容易或可能：您将如何获得5.40酒吧内一副翼的一架小型飞机？ ） 。 You’ll often need a helper to "buck" the rivet on the other side, or have long skinny arms and/or a full assortment of bucking bars. 您往往需要一个帮手，以“推卸责任”铆钉在另一边，或有长期瘦武器和/或完整的组合的5.40酒吧。

So another solution has been devised - blind rivets, which have none of the above-mentioned disadvantages. 因此，另一种解决方案已制订-盲铆钉，有没有上面提到的缺点。 Blind rivets, often incorrectly referred to as "pop" rivets, have been used on aircraft since the production of the DC-3 (the tubular 'Chobert' rivets). 盲铆钉，往往错误地被称为“流行”铆钉，已被用于飞机以来，生产的DC - 3 （管状'肖贝尔'铆钉） 。 In the next article we will discuss the good and also the questionable qualities of blind rivets in more detail. 在未来的文章 ，我们将讨论的好，也是值得商榷的素质盲铆钉，更详细。 

dymodel

    铆接接头
    Part 2 of 2 第2部分二

    By Chris Heintz , P. Eng. 由Chris heintz ，体育工程。

        [This article is part of a series, where aeronautical engineer Chris Heintz discusses light aircraft design and construction.] [此文章是一系列行动的一部分，那里的航空工程师克里斯heintz讨论了轻型飞机的设计和建造。 ]

    In the first part of this article we examined the advantages (ie reliability and durability) of solid "bucked" rivets as well as their disadvantages (ie need for expensive equipment, required skill level, noisy operation, and accessibility). 在第一部分，本文我们研究的优势（即可靠性和耐久性）固体“ bucked ”铆钉，以及他们的缺点（即需要昂贵的设备，所需的技能水平，嘈杂的运作，以及无障碍） 。 Blind rivets have been developed to overcome the disadvantages of solid rivets, and some of the blind rivets now available have retained virtually all the advantages of solid rivets. 盲铆钉已制定，以克服的弊端，坚实的铆钉，以及一些盲目铆钉，现已有保留，几乎所有的优势，坚实的铆钉。 Let's look at blind rivets in some detail. 让我们看看盲铆钉在一些细节。

    First of all, let us understand that a "pop" rivet is a blind rivet, but a blind rivet is not necessarily a pop rivet. 首先，让我们明白，一个“流行”铆钉是一个盲铆钉，但盲铆钉不一定是流行的铆钉。 ("Pop" rivet is a brand name manufactured by USM - United Shoe Machine - and obviously a "shoe" rivet is not ideal for aircraft use.) （ “流行”铆钉是一个品牌名称制造USM的-美国的制鞋机-显然是一个“擦鞋”铆钉是不理想的航机使用）。

    As a typical example, we will use Textron's Avdel Avex rivet (see Note at end of article). 作为一个典型的例子，我们将用隆的avdel avex铆钉（见注月底条） 。

　　

当设置盲铆钉，我们首先钻一个洞，稍过，使铆钉可以轻松地插入（见项目 h后， 图3 ） 。

A special hand rivet puller (hand rivet gun from a local hardware store - at $15 to $50, depending on quality) is used to pull on the rivet stem and the reaction is applied to the rivet head. 一个特殊的手铆钉拉（手铆钉枪，从一家当地的硬件商店-在1 5元至5 0元，视质量）是用来拉对铆钉干和反应是适用于铆钉头。 The stem has a special head which compresses the rivet tube and makes it grow and fill the hole (see item 1, Figure 3 ) pulling further. 干具有特殊的头部，其中压缩铆钉管，使之成长，并填写洞（见项目1 ， 图3 ）进一步拉动。 The rivet can only grow outside the parts until the rivet and stem head create a good formed head resting well on the part and squeezing the parts together. 铆钉只能增长以外的部分，直至铆钉和干头创造一个良好的形成头部的休息，以及对部分和压缩部分在一起。 At that stage, the stem breaks in tension at the notch. 在这个阶段，干休息，在紧张缺口。 (The set rivet is shown in item L, Figure 3 .) （一套铆钉是表现在项目升， 图3 ） 。

When we examine this blind rivet and compare it to the solid rivet discussed in Part 1 of this discussion, we find some of the same advantages: 当我们研究这个盲铆钉和比较，以坚实的铆钉讨论在第1部分，本次讨论，我们发现一些相同的优点：

   1. The rivet is manufactured under adequate quality control, which guarantees you the quality. 铆钉是制造下足够的质量控制，从而保证您的质量。 (Again, see note at the end of this article.) （再次，见注在本月底的文章） 。
   2. The rivet fills the hole completely preventing any relative motion. 铆钉填充孔完全防止任何相对运动。
   3. Original and formed heads seal on and compress the parts together (no corrosion, the engine vibration loads do not fatigue the rivet because they are transmitted by friction.) 原来，形成了密封的元首和压缩部分一起（无腐蚀，发动机的振动荷载作用不疲劳的铆钉，因为他们传送的摩擦） 。

There is one prime disadvantage to blind rivets. 有一个总理不利的盲铆钉。 The rivet, being tubular, has a section that is obviously smaller than that of a solid rivet. 铆钉，管状，已经有一节，显然是小于一个坚固的铆钉。 This means one blind rivet is not as strong as one solid rivet of the same diameter. 这意味着一盲铆钉没那么强烈，作为一个坚实的铆钉的相同直径。 The designer needs more blind rivets, a larger diameter rivet or a stronger material. 设计师需要更多的盲铆钉，大直径的铆钉或更强的材料。

Many designers seem to like the " monel " (stainless steel type) rivets which are stronger, but they may forget that there is a corrosion problem involved with stainless steel. 很多设计师似乎像“ 乃尔 ” （不锈钢型）铆钉是强大，但他们可能忘记，是有腐蚀的问题，涉及与不锈钢。 As mentioned in an earlier article, as the aluminum corrodes away, the aircraft owner has no choice but to replace the rivet with a larger diameter rivet later on. 正如刚才在早先的文章，由于铝的腐蚀离开时，航空器所有人别无选择，只能以取代铆钉与大直径的铆钉，稍后。 Or, if using stainless steel rivets, the builder has the messy burden of dipping every single rivet in zinc-chromate (ZnCr) primer before setting it in the hole ... 或者，如果使用不锈钢铆钉，建设者已混乱的负担，浸渍每一个单一的铆钉在锌铬（ zncr ）底漆前设置它在洞... and this is all beside the fact that there is no "good" stainless steel blind rivet readily available on the market ! 这是所有的旁边，其实是有没有“好”的不锈钢盲铆钉容易，市面上出售的！

Going to larger rivet diameters is a limited choice as the large blind rivets are so hard to set by hand that a very expensive and cumbersome tool is required. 去更大的铆钉直径是有限的选择，作为大盲铆钉是如此难以确定的手说，一个非常昂贵而笨重的工具是必需的。 In my opinion, this defeats the purpose of these rivets in the first place. 我认为，这失败的目的，这些铆钉摆在首位。

Consequently, then, if the decision is made to go with blind rivets as opposed to solid rivets, the builder/designer is left with little choice other than increasing the numbers of rivets. 因此，然后，如果在作出有关决定去与盲铆钉作为反对坚实的铆钉，建设者/设计师是左很少选择其他方法比增加的数目铆钉。 A good rule to be used is that the number of blind rivets needs to be increased roughly in the proportion of 5 blind rivets for 3 solid rivets. 一个良好的法治被用作是多少盲铆钉，需要增加大约在比例五盲铆钉3坚实的铆钉。 In actual fact, this is not a consideration either on light airplanes as most rivets are used on the skins, which need a relatively small rivet pitch (spacing between rivets) anyway in order to prevent waviness in the skin panel. 在实际上，这不是一个考虑无论是对轻型飞机，由于大部分铆钉是使用于皮肤，这需要一个相对较小的铆钉间距（间距之间的铆钉）无论如何，以防止波纹在皮肤面板。 So, the designer is stuck, solid or blind rivets, not with the strength, but with choosing a pitch which provides a nice finish (for aerodynamic and aesthetic reasons). 因此，设计师是坚持，固体或盲铆钉，而不是与实力，但与选择一个足球场提供了一个很好完成（气动和审美的原因） 。

We have given the example of the Avex blind rivet because this is the only reasonably priced "good" blind rivet readily available (see note ). 我们已给予的例子，该avex盲铆钉，因为这是唯一的价格合理的“良好”盲铆钉现成的（见注 ） 。 Cost of the Avex rivets is approximately 8 cents per rivet, which compares to 30 cents to $1.00 for a Cherry blind rivet (and, remember, you need 4,000 to 8,000 rivets per aircraft). 成本的avex铆钉是大约8美分铆钉，其中比较至30美分，至1.00美元，为樱花的盲铆钉（和，请记住，您需要4000至8000铆钉，每架） 。 One other very determinant factor for selecting the Avex rivets is that they are "grip" insensitive. 另外一个很决定性因素选择avex铆钉的是，他们是“抓地力”的麻木。 The standard Avex rivets will join from grip 0 to grip 1/4" (6 mm) with the same rivet. (This compares to four different lengths for the Cherry type). This is a very important factor to prevent errors and must bear heavily on the designer's decision to make construction as easy and reliable as possible for the builder. 标准avex铆钉将加入由抓地力0到抓地力1 / 4 “ （ 6毫米）与上年铆钉。 （与此相比，以四种不同的长度为樱桃型） ，这是一个非常重要的因素，以防止错误和必须承担沉重对设计师的决定，使建设为方便和可靠的，尽可能为建设者。

There is one other objection to blind rivets. 还有另一个反对盲铆钉。 The rivet is okay for corrosion, but what about the stem? 铆钉是好的腐蚀，但对于干？ The stem is steel and phosphated, which is the correct protection, but, obviously, where the stem breaks there is no protection. 干是钢铁和磷酸化，这是正确的保护，但是，很明显，那里的干休息，是没有保障。 Will this rust? 这是否会生锈呢？ Any galvanic corrosion protection (such as phosphating steel or zinc chromating aluminum) has a reach of about 1/8" (3 mm) beyond the protected area. With Avex rivets the broken part is only 1/16" at the most, and extensive experience has confirmed that this is not a problem. 任何电偶腐蚀的保护（如磷化钢或铝锌钝化）有一个达到约1 / 8 “ （ 3毫米）超出了保护区。 avex与铆钉断裂的一部分，只有1 / 16 ”在最，并广泛经验已经确认这是不是一个问题。 (Zenith CH 200 / 300 aircraft assembled with Avex rivets still look like new after more than two decades, with outside storage.) （天顶的CH 200 / 300飞机组装与avex铆钉仍像是新经过两年多几十年来，与外部存储） 。

In this article we do not give any specific shear strength, just some relative values. 在这篇文章我们不给予任何具体的抗剪强度，只是一些相对价值。 It is the responsibility of every designer to obtain the values he or she feels can be consistently achieved by the builders (and this takes into account many things, such as basic design philosophy, materials to be jointed, working conditions, etc.) 这是责任，每一个设计师，以获取的价值观，他或她觉得可以一贯所取得的建设者（这是考虑到很多事情，例如基本的设计理念，材料要节，工作条件等）

Nevertheless, I feel impelled to warn some experimental designers that the shear values given by the blind rivet manufacturers in catalogues are to be looked at with some common sense as well. 不过，我觉得促使警告一些实验的设计者认为，剪切价值观所提供的盲铆钉制造商目录，以期待在与一些普通常识，以及。 The manufacturer is not a liar, but he does present his product in the best possible way. 制造商是不是一个骗子，但他目前他的产品在尽可能最好的方式。 For example, when they make tests they use very thin sheets so that the stem is long enough to fill the rivet (see figure 4 ), which is the reason why the individual shear strength is higher than an aircraft solid rivet (the steel stem participates). 举例来说，当他们测试他们使用非常薄的产品技术，使该干的是足够长，以填补铆钉（ 见图4 ） ，这是原因，个别抗剪强度高于一飞机坚实的铆钉（钢干参加） 。 But on our aircraft, this is relatively seldom the case. 但对我们的飞机，这是相对很少的情况。 As a rule of thumb, a reliable shear value should be 1/2 the catalog specification. 作为一个经验法则，一个可靠的剪切值应为1 / 2目录规格。 But again, the designer should make tests. 但同样地，设计师应作出检查。 (Just as an example, when I do blind rivet tests, I knock the stem out before the test, just to be on the safe side!) （只是作为一个例子，当我这样做盲铆钉试验，我敲干出在测试前，刚刚为了安全起见，方！ ）

　　

图4显示一个坏的盲铆钉（一标准的硬件的“ POP ”铆钉） 。 Note that the rivet does not fill the hole and that there is note a nice, formed head (just the tube is opened); the stem will fall out after some vibrations. 请注意，铆钉不补洞，并有注一尼斯，形成头（只管是开放） ;干会下跌后，一些震动。

Use the right rivets and you will be very pleased with the results! 使用正确的铆钉，你将非常高兴与结果！

Note: It is obvious that the notch depth in the stem is directly related to the breaking load. 注：这是很明显，切口的深度，在干，直接关系到打破负荷。 The Avex rivets (from Textron’s Avdel division) manufactured in the state of New York and in Brazil do not have the consistency of those manufactured in the UK and should not be used on aircraft. 该avex铆钉（由隆的avdel司司长）制品在纽约州，并在巴西不具备的一致性，这些制品在英国和不应该用在飞机上。 Zenith Aircraft imports Avex rivets from England and makes a systematic test on every lot received, thus guaranteeing the correct quality. 天顶的飞机进口avex铆钉来自英格兰，并提出一个有系统的测试对每一个收到很多，从而保证了正确的质量。 The FAA type-certificated ZENITH CH 2000 aircraft uses these same rivets. 美国联邦航空局型文凭天顶的CH 2000年飞机使用这些相同的铆钉。

　　“ [飞机]到一起，主要与飞机级avex下拉式干铆钉，再加上简单的设计，使包说，其实是可以组装在一个几百个小时。 ”

　　- KITPLANES magazine, January 2004 issue, Cover story -k itplanes杂志， 2 004年1月发行，封面故事

　　

　　

　　Designer Chris Heintz has developed a unique method for setting the Avex rivets: Using a "flush" type Avex rivet (as opposed to a "dome" type), the rivet head is formed into a low-profile dome finish in the riveting (pulling) process, as illustrated above, with the use a of custom machined (concaved) rivet puller head. 设计师克里斯heintz已开发了一个独特的方法设置avex铆钉：用“冲水式” avex铆钉（如反对“巨蛋”型） ，铆钉头是形成一个低姿态的圆顶完成，在铆钉（拉）过程中，说明上述情况，与使用自定义加工（ concaved ）铆钉拉头。 This simple process sets the rivet head tightly against the top skin while providing a low profile finish. 这个简单的过程套铆钉头部紧紧地对顶端的皮肤同时提供一个低调完成。

dymodel

    选择的设计，您的飞机

    By Chris Heintz 由Chris heintz

        [This article is part of a series, where aeronautical engineer Chris Heintz discusses light aircraft design and construction.] [此文章是一系列行动的一部分，那里的航空工程师克里斯heintz讨论了轻型飞机的设计和建造。 ]

        Having completed our two-part series on flight testing your new aircraft - a topic that is of great interest to the majority of builders, we are going back to basics with this series of articles which begins this month by focusing on the decision-making process involved in designing an aircraft, or choosing which aircraft design to build. 完成了我们的两部分系列的飞行测试您的新飞机-的一个话题是极大的兴趣，大多数的建设者，我们会回到基本问题与这一系列的文章开始的这一个月，由侧重于决策过程涉及在设计一架飞机，或选择飞机设计建设。 Here we will outline the processes involved in making such a decision, with the added benefit of being able to provide calculations that can be used in narrowing down our choices. 在这里我们将纲要的过程涉及在作出这样的决定，与补充的利益，能够提供的计算方法，可用于在缩小我们的选择。 We hope you enjoy this series of articles! 我们希望您能喜欢这一系列的文章！

    Whether designing an aircraft or deciding on a specific design to build, much the same process of thought is involved in order to come to the right decision. 是否设计的飞机或决定一个特定的设计，建设，更是同一过程的思路是参与，以便来决定是正确的。 Almost all of what we will discuss in this article with respect to a basic design for a new aircraft can very easily be applied, and the same questions answered, to help you decide which aircraft design you should build and/or own. 几乎所有的是什么，我们将讨论在这篇文章与尊重的一个基本设计一个新的飞机可以很容易被应用，同时回答的问题，以帮助您确定哪些飞机设计，您应该建立和/或自己。 Going through this process should help assure that your choice of aircraft will be a useful and enjoyable part of your material assets in this life. 经历这一进程应有助于保证您所选择的飞机将是一个有益的和愉快您的部分实物资产在这方面的生活。

    A written list of the qualities you would like to see in your aircraft is an absolute necessity. 书面清单的素质，您想看到在您的飞机是绝对必要的。 It might contain such requirements as: 它可能包含这样的规定为：

　　易用性建设

　　Low landing/take off speed 低着陆/起飞速度

　　High rate of climb 高企的攀登

　　Good cruise speed 良好的巡航速度

　　High ceiling 高上限

　　Comfortable seating space 舒适的座位空间

　　Outstanding visibility 优秀的能见度

　　Acceptable noise level 可接受的噪音水平

　　Easy ground handling 容易地勤服务

　　Good visibility during taxiing 良好的能见度在滑行

　　Good handling in the air 良好的处理在空气中

　　Large panel to show off with full IFR 大板炫耀充分飞行

　　Excellent low speed controllability 良好的低速可控性

　　And the list could go on and on. 和清单可不胜枚举。 There may be some very special things you need in order to make your aircraft truly useful for your individual life style, such as: 可能有一些很特殊的事情，您需要在为了使您的飞机真正有用的为您个人的生活方式，例如：

　　300 ft. roll take off and landing (because your private strip is only 600 ft. long). 三〇 〇英尺辊采取的起飞和着陆（因为您的私人地带，只是六○○英尺长） 。

　　40 lbs. 四十磅。 baggage capacity (because your better half likes her creature comforts -but remember, you'll have to carry it to the motel!) 行李的能力（因为您的更好的一半，喜欢她的动物，舒适的-但请记住，您都必须进行到汽车旅馆！ ）

　　260 lb. pilot (because you do not like diets) 260磅的试验（因为你不喜欢的饮食）

　　good high altitude performance (because you live at 8,000 ft.) 良好的高海拔地区的性能（因为你住在8000英尺）

　　adaptability on wheels or floats (because you live in town but your cottage is on the lake) 适应性对车轮或彩车（因为你住在城市，但您的平房，是关于湖）

　　removable or folding wings (because hangars are too expensive). 移动或折叠的翅膀（因为库是太昂贵） 。

　　After the first general list of desired qualities, and the second more individually specific list, a third more practical list should be developed, including such basic questions as: 后的第一次一般性的名单理想的素质，第二个更个别的具体清单，第三个更实际的名单，应制定，包括这些基本的问题：

　　Can I build it? 我可以建立它呢？

　　What's the total cost? 什么样的总费用是多少？

　　Can I design it (or is the designer reputable so that I can trust his design reliability)? 我可以设计，它（或者是有信誉的设计师，使我可以相信他设计的可靠性） ？

　　Will it have low maintenance costs? 将有低的维修费用？

　　Will it be easy to maintain? 将它易于维修？

　　Now that you've made these lists, make a couple of copies and hang one on your workbench, one on your desk, etc. to look at and think about for a few weeks. 你现在所做的这些名单，使一对夫妇的副本和坑一对您的工作台，一个在您的书桌上，等看待和思考了数周。 Refer to them from time to time, adding as many things as you like until you feel you've got all the appropriate variables covered. 是指他们从时间，以时间，加入作为，很多事情如你所愿，直到您觉得得到所有适当的变数包括在内。

　　With all this information in mind, you have the framework to start looking at aircraft. 与所有这方面的资料，在心目中，你有没有框架，开始寻找在飞机。 As a designer of many original aircraft, I am not talking here about a "reproduction" aircraft, but a brand new design in which every part will be checked for adequacy according to present day, state-of-the-art technology. 作为一个设计师，许多原来的飞机，我不是在这里谈论一个“复制”飞机，而是一个全新的设计，其中每一个部分，将检查是否足够，根据目前的一天，国家- - -最先进的技术。 In other words, we're going to start from scratch and not consider a Cub wing on a Citabria fuselage with a Cherokee tail and a Cessna gear. 在其他换句话说，我们要从头开始，并不会考虑幼童永安一citabria机身与切诺基尾部和塞斯纳齿轮。 Rather we're going to think about a new design where a 12 hp engine can take off with four people in 300 ft, at 3,000 fpm, cruise just below the speed of sound for 8 hours, come in a kit that can be built in 50 hours for less than $3,000, with a designer who is willing to spend 120% of his time improving his design to the builders suggestions!! 而我们要去想想，一个新的设计，如12马力的引擎可以起飞4人在三百英尺，在3000简介FPM ，邮轮仅低于音速的8小时，来在一个工具包，可建在50小时，少于3000美元，与设计师谁是愿意花120 ％ ，他的时间，提高其设计，以建设者的建议！

　　All jokes aside, before I put someone into cardiac arrest thinking such an aircraft could exist, we have to stay realistic. 所有笑话外，之前，我把有人到心跳骤停思想，这种飞机可能存在的，我们要留的现实。 Our machine will have to be built with known raw materials, using well proven techniques, and the design will be subject to gravity (earth attraction) drag (wasted energy), and powerplant efficiency just like any other. 我们的机器将要建成与已知的原料，用好证明，技术，设计将受到重力（地球的吸引力）拖曳（浪费能源） ，以及电厂的效率，就像任何其他。 So, of necessity, we must start out with certain basic limitations, but we won't let that discourage us because there are many proven, good designs available. 因此，有必要的，我们必须开始与一些基本的限制，但我们不会让这种使我们泄气，因为有很多证明，良好的设计。 We certainly can design one ourselves or find an already existing design that meets our needs. 当然，我们可以设计一个自己或找到一个已经存在的设计，能够满足我们的需要。

　　Now, we'll go back to our lists and this time we'll strike out the unreasonable items. 现在，我们将回到我们的名单，这一次我们将剔除不合理的项目。 This is simply a matter of common sense. We all have common sense - it just gets a little bit damaged sometimes during our formal education, but if we are to have any success in life, we have to listen to it very carefully. 这完全是一个常识问题，我们都有着共同的意义-它只是得到一点点损坏，有时在我们的正规教育，但是，如果我们有任何成功的人生，我们要听很小心。 If we dream the impossible we will become a dreamer unless we are geniuses. 如果我们的梦想不可能的，我们会成为一个梦，除非我们的天才。 But experience tells us that geniuses are the exceptions, so the majority of us has to live with common sense. 但经验告诉我们，天才是例外，所以我们大多数已经一起生活的共同意识。 Reality puts us back on track when we listen too much to our dreams. 现实使我们回到正轨，当我们听太多了我们的梦想。

　　The next step after our lists have been made reasonable by common sense is to rearrange them. 下一步我们的名单后，已作出合理的，由共同的感觉是，要重新排列。 This time we'll combine all our variables onto one list and rearrange them in a decreasing order of importance. 这个时候，我们会结合起来，我们所有的变量上一张名单，并重新安排他们在一个下降的重要次序。

　　Now, our list may look like this: 现在，我们的清单可能看起来就像这样：

　　Low landing speed 低降落速度

　　Outstanding visibility 优秀的能见度

　　Low cost 成本低

　　Comfortable seating for two 舒适的座位为2

　　400 lbs. 四○○磅。 (pilots and passenger and baggage) （飞行员和乘客和行李）

　　or this: 或：

　　Low cost 成本低

　　Design confidence 设计的信心

　　Reasonable cruise speed 合理的巡航速度

　　Good handling (air and ground) 良好的处理（空中和地面）

　　Removable wings 可移动的翅膀

　　Our list may still contain some incompatibilities, such as low cost and high cruise speed, or sexy looking design and low maintenance etc., so now is the time to eliminate the incompatibilities or change each one slightly to bring them closer together. 我们的名单仍可能含有一些不兼容，如低成本，高巡航速度，或者性感的设计与展望低，维修等，所以现在是时候了，以消除不兼容或改变每一个稍微使他们更加紧密。 Using the previous example, we could have acceptable cost (say $30,000) and cruise at 150 mph or have a good looking airplane with acceptable maintenance (less than 1 hour to remove all fairings). 使用前面的示例中，我们可以接受的成本（例如$ 30000 ）和巡航导弹在一五零英里每小时或有一个良好的期待与接受的飞机维修（少于1小时，以消除所有fairings ） 。

　　We have to be very careful when interpreting adjectives (what is good looking to me may be ugly to you, what is acceptable to him may be unacceptable to her!). 我们必须非常小心，当形容词的解释（什么是好找，我可能是丑陋的你，什么是他可以接受，可不能接受她！ ） 。 In order to avoid misunderstandings on this subject, our civilization has unsuccessfully tried to quantify everything - and I say unsuccessfully because quantifying will stay just that as long as we deal with human beings and not strictly with machines. 在为了避免误会，就这个问题，我们的文明已成功尝试量化的一切-和我说失败，因为量化会留刚才说，只要我们在处理人与不严格遵守机器。 (I classify computers as machines, too, by the way) （我分类电脑作为机器，也由单程）

　　We all know how the same statistics can be used to justify white or black, blue or red depending on the speakers beliefs and skill of convincing others. 我们都知道，同样的统计资料可以用来证明的黑色或白色，蓝色或红色，视乎有关发言者的信念和技巧，说服力等。 But we are not in politics, not even at a sales or hangar flying session. 但我们不会在政治上，甚至没有在销售或机库，飞行会议。 We are simply trying honestly to design a good new aircraft. 我们只是试图诚实地设计一个良好的新飞机。 But we need figures so we have to write them down and as we work with gravity (weight), drag (pounds) and other physical qualities, we add onto our lists whatever we can quantify, being aware that some items (numbers) may have to be left blank. 但我们需要的数字，因此，我们必须写下来，作为我们工作的重力（重量） ，拖曳（磅）和其他身体素质，我们加入到我们的名单，无论我们可以量化，被知道，有些项目（编号）可能有要留空。

　　Our list may look like this: 我们的清单可能看起来就像这样：

　　Stall below 45 下面的45档

　　Visibility 360 degrees 能见度360度

　　Airframe cost below $14,000 机身的成本低于14,000元

　　Comfort (cabin size) 舒适（客舱大小）

　　Must carry two (400 lbs) 必须进行2 （ 400磅）

　　or this: 或：

　　Total cost below $35,000 总成本低于35,000元

　　Reliability ( ) 可靠性（ ）

　　Cruise speed 120 mph 巡航速度一二○英里每小时

　　Handling ( ) 处理（ ）

　　Removable wing (7-1/2 ft. max) 卸除机翼（ 7-1/2英尺最大值）

　　Now, we have to start compromising. 现在，我们已经开始妥协。 It is this accepted compromise which will make for a successful long-term choice. 这是接受妥协，这将使为一个成功的长期选择。 For example, one has to compromise between 360 degrees unobstructed visibility and a high wing: either you stay with a high wing (which needs hefty uprights) and reduce the visibility requirements, or you stay with 360 degree visibility and have to install a bubble canopy on a low wing aircraft. 举例来说，一要妥协之间的360度，畅通的可视性和高永：要么你留在一个高永（需要大幅uprights ） ，并减少能见度的要求，或者您留在360度的能见度，并已安装泡沫檐篷对低固定翼飞机。

　　The same applies for low stall speed, high cruise speed and low cost (here we have three variables). 这同样适用于低档高速，高巡航速度，成本低（在这里我们有三个变量） 。 High cruise speed means large wing, high lift airfoil, low powerplant and fuel weight. 高巡航速度意味着大荣，高扬程翼型，低动力和燃料的重量。 Low cost means single wing (no retractable high lift devices) a small wing and low horsepower. 成本低，手段单一联队（没有可伸缩的高扬程装置）的一小翼和低马力。

　　So, one goes down the list again and again compromising and keeping in mind that the items were listed in a decreasing order of importance. 所以，一个下降的名单一而再，再而妥协，并铭记认为，这些项目都列在减少，秩序的重要性。 After making more adjustments to reduce any incongruities, the next thing we'll need to do is work with some calculations. 之后，作出更多的调整，以减少任何不协调，未来的事，我们将需要做的是工作与一些计算。

　　Weight: Statistics show that the empty weight of most aircraft is close to 60 percent of the load carried (passengers and fuel). 重量：统计数字显示，空的重量大部分飞机是接近60 ％的负荷进行（乘客和燃料） 。 As you have a good idea of the engine, add the fuel required for the desired endurance (as a rule of thumb, if the engine is rated at 100 hp, you'll burn 6 US gallons per hour at 75 percent cruise and 1 US gallon weighs 6.0 lbs. For example, with 120 hp and 3 hours range, you need 130 lbs. of fuel, so the gross weight (W) in lbs. equals 1.6 (occupants plus baggage plus fuel). 正如你有一个好主意的引擎，添加燃料所需的理想的耐力（作为一个经验法则，如果发动机额定100马力，您会烧伤6月，美国加仑每小时75 ％的巡航导弹和1美国每加仑重量六点零磅。举例来说，与120惠普和3个小时的范围内，您需要130磅。燃料，所以总重量（ w ）在磅。等于1.6 （占用，另加行李加燃料） 。

　　Wing area: You know the maximum lift co-efficient (CL MAX ) of the chosen airfoil (if you have no better idea, use 1.4 no flaps, 2.2 for the portion with flaps, and 3.0 for flaps and leading edge slots) and can calculate the wing area (S) knowing the desired stall speed: 机翼面积：你知道最大升力的合作效率（氯 最大值 ）所选择的翼型（如果您有没有更好的主意，使用1.4没有襟翼， 2.2为部分与皮瓣，皮瓣为3.0和领先插槽）和可计算机翼面积（ ）明知所期望的失速速度：

　　

　　Your top speed will be close to 您的最高速度将接近

　　

　　(for a very clean aircraft you may replace 190 by 21 0) （一个非常干净的飞机，你可能会取代190 21 0 ）

　　Your cruise speed is some 90 to 95 percent of the top speed. 您的巡航速度是大约90到95 ％的最高速度。

　　You will have an idea of the climb performance by calculating W/S x W/ BHP = P 您将有一个想法的攀登表现 ，通过计算瓦特/ s的X宽/必和必拓= p

　　Where W = gross weight (lbs.) 其中w =总重量（ lbs. ）

　　S = wing area (sq. ft.) =机翼面积（平方英尺）

　　BHP = Rated Brake Horsepower of engine 必和必拓 =额定制动马力的发动机

　　The "statistical" diagram below gives you very good take off and climb performance if your aircraft is below the curve. “统计”图下面为您提供了很好的起飞和爬升性能，如果您的飞机是下面的曲线。

　　These calculations are the basis for making some design decisions. 这些计算的基础上作一些设计的决定。 Combining the results of these calculations with the variables on our list will begin to make our design choices fairly obvious, thus we are on our way to beginning the actual design, or choosing the design, that we are going to build. 相结合的结果，这些计算与变数对我们的名单将开始使我们的设计选择相当明显，因此，我们对我们的方式开始实际的设计，或选择的设计，我们将会建立。

　　

　　This "statistical diagram" gives you very good take off and climb performance if your aircraft is below the curve. 这个“统计图”让您很好的起飞和爬升性能，如果您的飞机是下面的曲线。

　　In our next discussion we'll delve into the subjects of wing and tail area, weight and balance, and stability. 在我们下一步的讨论，我们将深入探讨的课题机翼和尾翼面积，重量和平衡，稳定的大局。